The Spatial Distribution of Sucrose Synthase Isozymes in Barley

The sucrose (Suc) synthase enzyme purified from barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) roots is a homotetramer that is composed of 90-kD type 1 Suc synthase (SS1) subunits. Km values for Suc and UDP were 30 mM and 5 [mu]M, respectively. This enzyme can also utilize ADP at 25% of the UDP rate. Anti-SS1 polyclonal antibodies, which recognized both SS1 and type 2 Suc synthase (SS2) (88-kD) subunits, and antibodies raised against a synthetic peptide, LANGSTDNNFV, which were specific for SS2, were used to study the spatial distribution of these subunits by immunoblot analysis and immunolocalization. Both SS1 and SS2 were abundantly expressed in endosperm, where they polymerize to form the five possible homo- and heterotetramers. Only SS1 homotetramers were detected in young leaves, where they appeared exclusively in phloem cells, and in roots, where expression was associated with cap cells and the vascular bundle. In the seed both SS1 and SS2 were present in endosperm, but only SS1 was apparent in the chalazal region, the nucellar projection, and the vascular bundle. The physiological implications for the difference in expression patterns observed are discussed with respect to the maize (Zea mays L.) model.     

Sucrose Phosphate Synthase Activity Rises in Correlation with High-Rate Cellulose Synthesis in Three Heterotrophic Systems

Based on work with cotton fibers, a particulate form of sucrose (Suc) synthase was proposed to support secondary wall cellulose synthesis by degrading Suc to fructose and UDP-glucose. The model proposed that UDP-glucose was then channeled to cellulose synthase in the plasma membrane, and it implies that Suc availability in cellulose sink cells would affect the rate of cellulose synthesis. Therefore, if cellulose sink cells could synthesize Suc and/or had the capacity to recycle the fructose released by Suc synthase back to Suc, cellulose synthesis might be supported. The capacity of cellulose sink cells to synthesize Suc was tested by analyzing the Suc phosphate synthase (SPS) activity of three heterotrophic systems with cellulose-rich secondary walls. SPS is a primary regulator of the Suc synthesis rate in leaves and some Suc-storing, heterotrophic organs, but its activity has not been previously correlated with cellulose synthesis. Two systems analyzed, cultured mesophyll cells of Zinnia elegans L. var. Envy and etiolated hypocotyls of kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), contained differentiating tracheary elements. Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L. cv Acala SJ-1) fibers were also analyzed during primary and secondary wall synthesis. SPS activity rose in all three systems during periods of maximum cellulose deposition within secondary walls. The Z. elegans culture system was manipulated to establish a tight linkage between the timing of tracheary element differentiation and rising SPS activity and to show that SPS activity did not depend on the availability of starch for degradation. The significance of these findings in regard to directing metabolic flux toward cellulose will be discussed.     

Sucrose-Phosphate Synthase,Sucrose Synthase,and Invertase in Sugar Beet Leaves

The activity of sucrose-phosphate synthase (SPS) in sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) leaves was shown to exceed considerably the synthesizing activity of sucrose synthase (SS). The rise in SPS activity was related to the daylight period; i.e., it was associated with the rate of photosynthesis. The highest SPS activity was characteristic of fully expanded source leaves. In young developing leaves (leaves expanded to less than half of their final size), which represent the sink organs, the SPS activity was 2.5 times lower. At all stages of leaf development, the synthesizing SS activity was rather low. The diurnal change of SS activity was independent of photosynthesis and showed a slight rise from 6:00–8:00 p.m. Under field conditions, the highest SPS activity was found in leaves in the terminal stage of their development (105-day-old plants); the synthesizing activity of SS showed little changes during this period. The activity of soluble acid invertase was characteristic of young leaves. In mature leaves, the activity of this enzyme correlated with the daylight period. These changes occurred on the background of low sucrose content in leaves. The regulation of SPS, SS, and invertase activity is discussed. It is supposed that compartmentation of these enzymes in the photosynthesizing cell is important for transport, metabolism, and the osmotic function of sucrose in leaves.     

Hormonal Control of Sucrose Phosphate Synthase and Sucrose Synthase in Sugar Beet

We studied the effects of synthetic analogs of phytohormones (benzyladenine, IAA, and GA) on the activities of the enzymes catalyzing sucrose synthesis and metabolism, sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS, EC 2.4.1.14) and sucrose synthase (SS, EC 2.4.1.13), and on the content of chlorophyll and protein during the sugar-beet (Beta vulgaris L.) ontogeny. Plant spraying with phytohormonal preparations activated SPS in leaves; direct interaction between phytohormones and the enzyme also increased its activity. The degree of this activation differed during the ontogeny and in dependence on the compound used for treatment. Analogs of phytohormones maintained high protein level in leaves, retarded chlorophyll breakdown, and, thus, prolonged leaf functional activity during development. Phytohormonal preparations practically did not affect the SS activity both after plant treatment and at their direct interaction with the enzyme. It is supposed that the SS activity in sugar-beet roots is controlled by sucrose synthesized in leaves rather than by phytohormones. The effects of hormones on leaf metabolism were mainly manifested in growth activation.     

Carbon allocation in developing spruce needles. Enzymes and intermediates of sucrose metabolism

In lyophilized needles of Norway spruce ( Picea abies [L.] Karsten) and starting from bud break, we determined enzyme activities (sucrose phosphate synthase [SPS; EC 2.4,1.14]. sucrose synthase [SS; EC 2.4,1.13]. acid invertase [AI; EC 3.2,1.26]) and intermediates (starch, sucrose, glucose, fructose; fructose 6-phosphate, fructose 2.6-bisphosphate [F26BP]) of carbohydrate metabolism together with needle weight, shoot length, chlorophyll and protein. For up to 110 days after bud break, samples were taken twice a week from about 25-year-old trees under field conditions. At least three periods can be distinguished during needle maturation. During the first period (up to 45 days after bud break) Al showed the highest extractable activity. This coincided with very high levels of F26BP (up to 11 pmol [mg dry weight]⁻¹) and a transient increase of starch in parallel to a decrease of sucrose. The interval between 45 and 70 days after bud break was characterized by high SS activity (ratio of fructose/glucose >1), much decreased levels of F26BP (down to below 1 pmol [mg dry weight]⁻¹), and a pronounced increase in the dry weight/fresh weight ratio. In parallel, starch declined and soluble carbohydrates increased. Finally, needle maturation was characterized by decreasing SS and continuously increasing SPS activities, so that the ratio of SPS/SS increased more than 6-fold. AI. however, did not decline with maturation. Changes in pool sizes of metabolites and enzyme activities (AI. SPS) are consistent with current concepts on sink/source transition. SS is obviously important with regard to the synthesis of structural polysaccharides.     

Physical and Kinetic Evidence for an Association between Sucrose-Phosphate Synthase and Sucrose-Phosphate Phosphatase

The possible formation of a multienzyme complex between sucrose (Suc)-phosphate synthase (SPS) and Suc-phosphate phosphatase (SPP) was examined by measuring the rates of Suc-6-phosphate (Suc-6-P) synthesis and hydrolysis in mixing experiments with partially purified enzymes from spinach (Spinacia oleracea) and rice (Oryza sativa) leaves. The addition of SPP to SPS stimulated the rate of Suc-6-P synthesis. SPS inhibited the hydrolysis of exogenous Suc-6-P by SPP when added in the absence of its substrate (i.e. UDP-glucose) but stimulated SPP activity when the SPS substrates were present and used to generate Suc-6-P directly in the reaction. Results from isotope-dilution experiments suggest that Suc-6-P was channeled between SPS and SPP. A portion of the SPS activity comigrated with SPP during native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, providing physical evidence for an enzyme-enzyme interaction. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that SPS and SPP associate to form a multienzyme complex.     

Effects of Elevated Sucrose-Phosphate Synthase Activity on Photosynthesis,Assimilate Partitioning,and Growth in Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum var UC82B)

The expression of a sucrose-phosphate synthase (SPS) gene from maize (Zea mays, a monocotyledon) in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum, a dicotyledon) resulted in marked increases in extractable SPS activity in the light and the dark. Diurnal modulation of the native tomato SPS activity was found. However, when the maize enzyme was present the tomato leaf cells were unable to regulate its activation state. No detrimental effects were observed and total dry matter production was unchanged. However, carbon allocation within the plants was modified such that in shoots it increased, whereas in roots it decreased. There was, therefore, a change in the shoot:root dry weight ratio favoring the shoot. This was positively correlated with increased SPS activity in leaves. SPS was a major determinant of the amount of starch in leaves as well as sucrose. There was a strong positive correlation between the ratio of sucrose to starch and SPS activity in leaves. Therefore, SPS activity is a major determinant of the partitioning of photosynthetically fixed carbon in the leaf and in the whole plant. The photosynthetic rate in air was not significantly increased as a result of elevated leaf SPS activity. However, the light- and CO2-saturated rate of photosynthesis was increased by about 20% in leaves expressing high SPS. In addition, the temporary enhancement of the photosynthetic rate following brief exposures to low light was increased in the high SPS plants relative to controls. We conclude that the level of SPS in the leaves plays a pivotal role in carbon partitioning. Furthermore, high SPS levels have the potential to boost photosynthetic rates under favorable conditions.     

水稻叶片蔗糖磷酸合成酶的一些特性

水稻叶片粗提液经硫酸铰分部沉淀、DE 52纤维素及 Sephadex G—200柱层析,得到较纯的蔗糖磷酸合成酶。该酶的最适 PH约7.0;UTP,UDP,ATP能明显地抑制其酶活;UTP是该酶UDPG的竞争性抑制剂,Mg~( )对它有促进作用;G6P则无影响。酶的两个底物F6P及UDPG的饱和动力学曲线分别为双曲线型和S型;K_m(F6P)=0.93 mmol/L;K_m(UDPG)=20.0 mmol/L;V_m(F6P)=83.3 nmol Suc mg~(-1)Protein min~(-1);V_m(UDPG)=333 nmol Suc mg~(-1)protein min~(-1);Hill(F6P)=1.0,Hill(UDPG)=1.4。水稻叶片蔗糖磷酸合成酶的活性受 ATP,UTP,UDP,UDPG等因素的调节。水稻叶片中蔗糖合成酶的总活力大于或等于蔗糖磷酸合成酶。     

Rhythmic growth and carbon allocation in Quercus robur. Sucrose metabolizing enzymes in leaves

The high sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS) capacity and the low soluble acid invertase activity of mature leaves of the first flush of leaves remained stable during second flush development. Conversely, fluctuations of sucrose synthase (SS) activity were in parallel with the sucrose requirement of the second flush. Sucrose synthase activity (synthesis direction) in first flush leaves could increase in 'response' to sink demand constituted by the second flush growth. Only the ptotosynthates provided by flush mature leaves were translocated for a current flush, while the starch content of these leaves remained stable. After their emergence, second flush leaves showed an increase in SPS and SS (Synthetic direction) activities. The high sucrose synthesis in second flush leaves was used for leaf expansion. When young leaves were 30% fully expanded (stage II20), SPS activity showed little change whereas SS activity declined rapidly toward and after full leaf expansion. The starch accumulation in the young leaves occured simultaneously with their expansion. Developing leaves showed a high level of acid invertase activity until maximum leaf expansion (stage II1). In first and second flush leaves, changes in acid invertase activity correlated positively with changes in reducing sugar concentrations. Alkaline invertase and sucrose synthase (cleavage direction) activities showed similar changes with low values when compared with those of acid invertase activity, especially in second flush leaves. The present results suggest that soluble acid invertase was the primary enzyme responsible for sucrose catabolism in the expanding common oak leaf.     

Regulation of Sucrose Metabolism in Higher Plants: Localization and regulation of Activity of Key Enzymes

Sucrose (Suc) plays a central role in plant growth and development. It is a major end product of photosynthesis and functions as a primary transport sugar and in some cases as a direct or indirect regulator of gene expression. Research during the last 2 decades has identified the pathways involved and which enzymes contribute to the control of flux. Availability of metabolites for Suc synthesis and ‘demand’ for products of sucrose degradation are important factors, but this review specifically focuses on the biosynthetic enzyme sucrose-phosphate synthase (SPS), and the degradative enzymes, sucrose synthase (SuSy), and the invertases. Recent progress has included the cloning of genes encoding these enzymes and the elucidation of posttranslational regulatory mechanisms. Protein phosphorylation is emerging as an important mechanism controlling SPS activity in response to various environmental and endogenous signals. In terms of Suc degradation, invertase-catalyzed hydrolysis generally has been associated with cell expansion, whereas SuSy-catalyzed metabolism has been linked with biosynthetic processes (e.g., cell wall or storage products). Recent results indicate that SuSy may be localized in multiple cellular compartments: (1) as a soluble enzyme in the cytosol (as traditionally assumed); (2) associated with the plasma membrane; and (3) associated with the actin cytoskel-eton. Phosphorylation of SuSy has been shown to occur and may be one of the factors controlling localization of the enzyme. The purpose of this review is to summarize some of the recent developments relating to regulation of activity and localization of key enzymes involved in sucrose metabolism in plants.     

Regulation of sucrose metabolism in higher plants: localization and regulation of activity of key enzymes

Sucrose (Suc) plays a central role in plant growth and development. It is a major end product of photosynthesis and functions as a primary transport sugar and in some cases as a direct or indirect regulator of gene expression. Research during the last 2 decades has identified the pathways involved and which enzymes contribute to the control of flux. Availability of metabolites for Suc synthesis and 'demand' for products of sucrose degradation are important factors, but this review specifically focuses on the biosynthetic enzyme sucrose-phosphate synthase (SPS), and the degradative enzymes, sucrose synthase (SuSy), and the invertases. Recent progress has included the cloning of genes encoding these enzymes and the elucidation of posttranslational regulatory mechanisms. Protein phosphorylation is emerging as an important mechanism controlling SPS activity in response to various environmental and endogenous signals. In terms of Suc degradation, invertase-catalyzed hydrolysis generally has been associated with cell expansion, whereas SuSy-catalyzed metabolism has been linked with biosynthetic processes (e.g., cell wall or storage products). Recent results indicate that SuSy may be localized in multiple cellular compartments: (1) as a soluble enzyme in the cytosol (as traditionally assumed); (2) associated with the plasma membrane; and (3) associated with the actin cytoskeleton. Phosphorylation of SuSy has been shown to occur and may be one of the factors controlling localization of the enzyme. The purpose of this review is to summarize some of the recent developments relating to regulation of activity and localization of key enzymes involved in sucrose metabolism in plants.     

网纹甜瓜发育果实糖分积累与蔗糖代谢参与酶的关系

随着网纹甜瓜果实的发育,果实中葡萄糖和果糖的含量增加,蔗糖的快速积累发生在果实发育的中后期,高蔗糖积累型果实中蔗糖积累速率明显快于低蔗糖积累型.蔗糖磷酸合成酶活性在果实发育的前期短暂下降, 而后稳步上升,在果实发育的中后期高蔗糖积累型果实中该酶的活性显著高于低蔗糖积累型果实;随着果实发育,蔗糖合成酶的分解活性降低而合成活性升高.酸性和中性转化酶在未成熟果实中活性较高,而在成熟果实中很低; 高蔗糖积累型果实中酸性转化酶活性显著低于同期低蔗糖积累型果实.合成蔗糖的酶活性小于分解蔗糖的酶活性时蔗糖几乎没有积累.根据这些结果推测,转化酶活性的下降、蔗糖磷酸合成酶活性的增加以及蔗糖合成酶分解活性的下降和合成活性的增加,是引起果实蔗糖积累的主要内在因子.     

植物蔗糖磷酸合成酶研究进展

蔗糖磷酸合成酶(Sucrose Phosphate Synthase,以下简称SPS)是植物体内控制蔗糖合成的关键酶。植物体内蔗糖的积累与SPS活性正相关,SPS还参与植物的生长和产量形成,并在植物的抗逆过程中起重要作用。高等植物中至少存在A、B、C三个家族的SPS,而禾本科植物至少存在A、B、C、DIII和DIV五个家族的SPS。不同植物体内不同家族的SPS基因的表达特性不同,它们所发挥的功能也存在差异。SPS的活性在基因表达调控和SPS蛋白磷酸化共价修饰作用两个层面受到植物生长发育、光照、代谢产物、外源物质如激素和糖类等多种因素的复杂调控。转基因研究表明,转SPS基因是提高作物产量和品质、增强作物抗逆性的有效途径,值得深入研究。全面总结了国内外在植物蔗糖磷酸合成酶方面的研究进展,并提出问题与研究展望,期望为进一步研究并利用植物SPS基因改良作物品种提供参考。     

苹果中磷酸蔗糖合酶家族基因的表达特性及其与蔗糖含量的关系

磷酸蔗糖合酶(sucrose phosphate synthase,SPS)是植物中蔗糖合成的主要限速酶,影响植物的生长发育和果实中蔗糖的含量。为探明苹果中SPS基因家族特性及其在蔗糖合成中的作用,该研究从苹果基因组中分离了MdSPS家族基因,分析了它们的进化关系以及mRNA表达特性与酶活性和蔗糖含量的关系。结果显示:(1)在苹果基因组中有8个SPS家族基因表达,它们分别属于双子叶植物的3个SPS亚家族。(2)荧光定量PCR分析显示,苹果C类的MdSPS6基因和A类的MdSPS1a/b基因是苹果中表达丰度最高的SPS基因成员,其中MdSPS6在苹果成熟果中表达丰度最高,其次是成熟叶片,而MdSPS1a/b在不积累蔗糖的幼果中表达丰度最高。(3)在果实发育过程中,除MdSPS1a/b之外,其它5个苹果MdSPS家族基因均随果实的生长表达丰度增加,与SPS活性和蔗糖含量明显呈正相关关系。研究表明,C类家族MdSPS6是苹果果实发育后期和叶片中蔗糖合成的主要SPS基因。     

套袋对梨果实发育过程中糖组分及其相关酶活性的影响

以翠冠和黄金梨为试材,测定套袋和未套袋(对照)梨果实发育时期果实中蔗糖、葡萄糖、果糖和山梨醇含量以及蔗糖代谢相关酶酸性转化酶(AI)、中性转化酶(NI)、蔗糖合成酶(SS)和蔗糖磷酸合成酶(SPS)的活性,并对果实中糖组分积累与酶活性的关系进行了分析.结果表明:(1)两梨品种套袋果实在发育过程中蔗糖、葡萄糖、果糖、山梨醇和糖代谢相关酶活性变化趋势与对照基本一致,套袋果实糖含量均低于对照但差异不显著,而各相关酶活性在两类果实间差异表现各异.(2)在梨果实发育早期,果实中以分解酶类为主,糖分积累低;发育后期以合成酶类为主,糖分积累多.(3)两品种套袋和对照果实AI活性与葡萄糖含量均呈显著或极显著正相关,SS合成方向活性与蔗糖含量均为极显著正相关,且翠冠对照果SPS活性与蔗糖含量呈极显著正相关.可见,套袋通过提高果实发育早期转化酶(Inv)活性,降低果实后期蔗糖磷酸合成酶(SPS)、蔗糖合成酶(SS)的活性来影响糖分积累,从而影响梨果品质.     

A New Mechanism for the Regulation of Stomatal Aperture Size in Intact Leaves (Accumulation of Mesophyll-Derived Sucrose in the Guard-Cell Wall of Vicia faba)

At various times after pulse-labeling broad bean (Vicia faba L.) leaflets with 14CO2, whole-leaf pieces and rinsed epidermal peels were harvested and subsequently processed for histochemical analysis. Cells dissected from whole leaf retained apoplastic contents, whereas those from rinsed peels contained only symplastic contents. Sucrose (Suc)-specific radioactivity peaked (111 GBq mol-1) in palisade cells at 20 min. In contrast, the 14C content and Sucspecific radioactivity were very low in guard cells for 20 min, implying little CO2 incorporation; both then peaked at 40 min. The guard-cell apoplast had a high maximum Suc-specific radioactivity (204 GBq mol-1) and a high Suc influx rate (0.05 pmol stoma-1 min-1). These and other comparisons implied the presence of (a) multiple Suc pools in mesophyll cells, (b) a localized mesophyll-apoplast region that exchanges with phloem and stomata, and (c) mesophyll-derived Suc in guard-cell walls sufficient to diminish stomatal opening by approximately 3 [mu]m. Factors expected to enhance Suc accumulation in guard-cell walls are (a) high transpiration rate, which closes stomata, and (b) high apoplastic Suc concentration, which is elevated when mesophyll Suc efflux exceeds translocation. Therefore, multiple physiological factors are integrated in the attenuation of stomatal aperture size by this previously unrecognized mechanism.     

蔗糖磷酸合成酶研究的新进展

蔗糖磷酸合成酶(sucrose phosphate synthase,SPS)是高等植物体内控制蔗糖合成的关键酶之一,它主要通过异构调节和磷酸化修饰在酶水平调节蔗糖合成。本文简要介绍SPS家族的成员、SPS蛋白上的3个磷酸化位点,以及SPS的生物学功能、SPS与磷酸蔗糖磷酸酶的关系等。     

Changes of Sucrose-Phosphate Synthase Activity in Barley Primary Leaves during Light/Dark Transitions

The activity of sucrose-phosphate synthase (SPS) in 9-day-old barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) primary leaves was measured over a 24-hour period. Extractable enzyme activity was constant in the light, decreased 50 to 60% during the first one-half hour of darkness, and then returned to full activity before the start of the normal light period. Decreases of SPS activity in the dark were fully reversed by less than 10 minutes of illumination. In contrast to results with barley, the measurable activity of SPS in soybean, spinach, and pea leaves was unchanged during the first hour of darkness. Changes of SPS activity in barley primary leaves were stable upon gel filtration. The exact biochemical mechanism responsible for the enzyme activity changes in barley leaf extracts is unknown. The above findings support the suggestion by de Fekete (1973 Eur J Biochem, 10: 73-80) that SPS is controlled by posttranslational protein modification. These results are discussed in relation to the regulation of photosynthetic sucrose metabolism.