Clinal variation and evolution in the Hutera -Rhynchosinapis complex of the Sierra Morena (south-central Spain)

Geographical distribution and phenetic variation are studied for a group of related endemic species at present assigned to the genera Hutera and Rhynchosinapis. The presence of Rhynchosinapis hispida is recorded for five localities on the western part of the range studied. The area of R. longirostra is further explored to give twelve localities over an extended area of 100 km. Five additional localities, to give a total of seven, are also recorded for Hutera leptocarpa , and the limits between the area of this species and that of R. longirostra are tentatively established. Some populations which show intermediate and gradative characters between these taxa are referred to two new varieties and to three new genetic forms. The small area where H. rupestris occurs in the adjoining Sierra de Alcaraz is also explored. A numerical study of ten differential characters over fifteen populations of the above taxa, shows an obvious correlation between phenotype and geographical distribution, and sheds light on their possible phylogenetic relationship. Hutera leptocarpa and Rhynchosinapis longirostra seem to be schizoendemics which have recently and independently evolved from ancestors similar to the more widely distributed R. hispida. Hutera rupestris should not be regarded as a relict, but rather as a recent invader into the adjoining calcareous sierras. No solid basis has been found to maintain two separate genera and so the new combinations Hutera hispida and Hutera longirostra are proposed for the basionyms Rhynchosinapis hispida and Rhynchosinapis longirostra respectively. Conservational aspects are also discussed.     

Experimental release of an Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus)

Reintroduction to the wild of threatened species has become a modern additional justification for captive propagation. This conservation procedure is costly, and both economic resources and the absence of optimal conditions in the field limit the IUCN recommendations for reintroduction to a small proportion of potential candidate species. Furthermore reintroduction attempts often fail. In carnivores, reintroduction failure is attributed to unsuitable adaptation in the field by captive-reared animals, due to their lack of hunting skills, their tendency to leave the target area, their inadequate interaction with conspecifics or their excessive confidence in humans. This list of causes is based on very few studies of carnivore adaptation after reintroduction. In very rare and endangered species, monitoring individual case-histories is the only way to evaluate reintroduction success. We report a successful experimental release of an Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) which grew up in captivity. Careful feeding-training and avoidance of human contact during the captive phase, as well as good habitat quality and correct interaction with other wild lynx in the release site, seem to account for the observed success. Permanence of the lynx within the release area might be related to the availability of territory vacancies in the receiving population. Our results allow some optimism for future reintroductions of this endangered species in areas where it has become extinct recently.     

The life history of Boyeria irene (Fonscolombe, 1838) (Odonata: Aeshnidae) in the Sierra Morena Mountains (southern Spain)

The life history of Boyeria irene is inferred fromsize-frequency analyses of sweep-net samples taken during fiveyears in a permanent stream in the Sierra Morena Mountains.There the species is apparently mainly semivoltine, although a fewlarvae require three years to complete development. The instardistribution during winter is that of a summer species (sensuCorbet, 1954). Metamorphosis is confined to spring and thereis a long flying season. Similarities between B. ireneand congeneric species in North America are discussed.     

The Life Cycle of Guadalgenus franzi (Aubert, 1963) (Plecoptera: Perlodidae) in the Sierra Morena Mountains (Southern Spain): Semivoltinism in Seasonal Streams of the Mediterranean Basin

Guadalgenus franzi (Aubert) is a large perlodine stonefly distributed exclusively over the central and south areas of the Iberian Peninsula. In two seasonal streams of the Sierra Morena Mountains, near the southern edge of its range, monthly aquatic samples were taken during two consecutive years. The species had a semivoltine cycle. The adults emerged in late March and April. Larvae were found from December to May. Growth of junior and senior cohorts were recorded throughout the winter and spring until some weeks before the flow was interrupted or until emergence, respectively. Although a wide range of size was present during the winter, there was a resynchronization of both cohorts during the spring. Mature female larvae were larger than males.     

Factors conditioning the camera-trapping efficiency for the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus)

Camera trapping is the most used method for surveying medium-sized carnivores in Spain. The main target for these surveys has been the Iberian lynx, the most endangered cat in the world. The Iberian lynx conservation program has received the largest EU LIFE projects grant. So, efficiency is a key goal for managing this grant. During 2003 and 2007, we have applied these funds to the survey of the Iberian lynx in Eastern Sierra Morena (Spain). Using two different techniques, we have studied both to see which is the most efficient. The survey developed in active latrines resulted more efficient than that of scent stations and live prey camera trapping throughout the years, although there has been a variation between years. Otherwise, the live prey method has been the one providing the greatest speed and number of pictures per entrance. We suggest that camera-trapping surveys can be improved in terms of efficiency for a wide range of species, or at least for the Iberian lynx. To improve the results, cameras might be placed in relation to breeding territories. With this determinant, camera-trapping surveys would be shorter than 120 days. Finally, we suggest how those surveys for medium carnivores should be designed.     

Exposure to disease agents in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus)

The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is the most endangered felid species in the world. Lynx populations have decreased dramatically in size and distribution in the last four decades, thus becoming increasingly vulnerable to catastrophic events such as epizooties. From 1989 to 2000, serum samples were obtained from 48 free-ranging lynx captured in the Doñana National Park (DNP, n?=?31) and mountains of Sierra Morena (SM, n?=?17) in southern Spain. Samples were tested for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii, feline herpesvirus 1 (FHV-1), feline calicivirus (FCV), feline/canine parvovirus (FPV/CPV), feline coronavirus, feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), feline leukaemia virus and canine distemper virus (CDV) and for FeLV p27 antigen, to document baseline exposure levels. Antibodies against T. gondii were detected in 44% of lynx, with a significantly greater prevalence in DNP (61%) than in SM (12%). In DNP, prevalence was significantly higher in adult (81%) than in juvenile and sub-adult (41%) lynx, but no such difference was observed in SM. Low prevalences (≤11%) of minimally positive titres were found for FHV-1, FCV and FPV/CPV. This, combined with the lack of evidence for exposure to CDV, FIV and FeLV, suggests that these lynx populations are naïve and might be vulnerable to a disease outbreak in the future. Because of the reduced size of lynx populations, the documented low level of genetic variation (particularly in the DNP population) coupled with the recently documented state of immune depletion in a majority of necropsied lynx, it is important to better understand the threat and potential impact that disease agents might pose for the conservation of this endangered species. Future surveillance programs must include possible disease reservoir hosts such as domestic cats and dogs and other wild carnivores.     

Helminth parasites of the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) and sympatric carnivores

Five critically endangered Iberian lynxes (Lynx pardinus) and 35 other sympatric carnivores (19 feral cats Felis catus, 12 Egyptian mongooses Herpestes ichneumon, and 4 common genets Genetta genetta) were analysed for helminths in Sierra Morena and Do?ana area (southern Spain). Ancylostoma tubaeforme, which was believed to be harmful for lynx cubs according to a previous study, was present in the only lynx and in 53% of cats analysed in Do?ana (80% in adult cats). Other species shared in both areas were Toxocara cati (1 lynx, 31% of cats), Joyeuxiella pasqualei (1 lynx, 21% of cats) and Mesocestoides sp. (2 lynxes, 5% of cats). Only one mongoose was parasitized, harbouring larvae of two acantocephalan species not previously reported in the Iberian peninsula (Centrorhynchus (Sphaerirostris) lancea and Centrorhynchus (Longirostris) undulatus). Feral cats may be a reservoir for hookworms and other helminths affecting the Iberian lynx. In contrast, mongooses and genets may not play a role in the epidemiology of these species.     

Feeding ecology of the shortnose greeneye Chlorophthalmus agassizi Bonaparte, 1840 (Pisces: Chlorophthalmidae) in the eastern Ionian Sea (eastern Mediterranean)

The feeding ecology of Chlorophthalmus agassizi from the North Ionian Sea was examined in specimens caught during daylight hours on a seasonal basis from December 1996 to November 1997, at depths between 250 and 800 m (92 stations, total). Chlorophthalmus agassizi showed a mixed feeding strategy, exploiting a wide range of prey including mesopelagic, benthic and endobenthic organisms. Crustaceans and fishes were dominant food items in the diet year round. Diet composition showed slight seasonal fluctuations; these variations were correlated with food availability and reproductive activity. However, ontogenetic changes in the diet were relatively clear, despite the high overlap observed between small, medium and large individuals. Larger individuals are more efficient hunters that exhibit selection of prey with good swimming capabilities; smaller individuals consume prey with low mobility. Chlorophthalmus agassizi seem to be adapted to a food‐scarce environment, as typified in the deep‐water habitats of the Ionian Sea, and exploit all available niches.     

Life history and larval feeding of some species of Ephemeroptera and Plecoptera (Insecta) in the Sierra Nevada (Southern Iberian Peninsula)

We monitored two high mountain streams from the Sierra Nevada (Southern Spain) monthly throughout an annual cycle, measuring and analyzing physical and chemical parameters. Temperature was hourly registered. We studied life cycles and larval feeding of four mayfly species [Serratella ignita (Poda, 1761), Serratella spinosa nevadensis (Alba-Tercedor, 1981), Alainites muticus (Linnaeus, 1758), and Baetis alpinus Pictet, 1843] and two stonefly species [Amphinemura triangularis (Ris, 1902) and Capnioneura mitis Despax, 1932]. Some species changed their strategies (growth rate, life cycle duration, and/or voltinism) in accordance with different conditions (depending on the altitude and temperature). The gut content data showed that species fed mainly on detritus (as collector-gatherers or as shredders), except B. alpinus that behaved as a scraper in one of the streams. Differences in the larval diet of the same species in different streams, and even through its life, support the idea of not using general models to extrapolate the function of a species from a higher taxonomical level. Handling editor: D. Dudgeon     

The use of camera trapping for estimating Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) home ranges

The use of non-invasive long-term monitoring data to estimate home ranges of the critically endangered Iberian lynx has been evaluated. This programme began in 2002 and consisting of both annual latrine and camera-trap surveys, with the aims of detecting and individually identifying the maximum number of individuals and delineating female home range boundaries. Radio-tracking data were used to evaluate the accuracy of home range estimates constructed with camera-trapping data. There was little overlap of camera-trapping home ranges (7.0%?±?1.47), which suggests the existence of real territories consistent with the land tenure system expected for the species. Camera trapping home range estimates were half the size of radio-tracking data (54.1%?±?6.0 of overlapping). When comparing core areas, only the radio-tracking data did not yield improved results (36.7?±?5.4 of overlapping). Estimation of territories, which escaped detection each year, ranged from 0.0% to 5.7%. The results produced by camera-trapping data in this non-intrusive monitoring programme could be considered precise, and are therefore well suited to provide the knowledge required for appropriate conservation of this endangered species.     

Competitive Asymmetries in the Use of Supplementary Food by the Endangered Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus)

Background

As a conservation tool, supplementary feeding programs may be directed to specific individuals or sectors of the target population whose productivity or survival is thought to be limited by food scarcity. However, the use of supplemental food by different sex and age classes has received little attention. We studied individual variation in the access of the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) to supplementary food.

Methodology/Principal Findings

From 5349 pictures taken with automatic cameras placed in 25 feeding stations, we identified 28 individuals whose sex and age were known. All individuals known to live in areas subjected to supplementation regularly visited feeding stations. Food consumption was not proportional to expected variations in energy demand within sex and age classes. Food consumption by males was higher than by females, and increased with age, in agreement with a despotic distribution. Food consumption also increased with lynx body mass, and this pattern held for individuals sharing the same breeding territories. The access of inferior competitors increased with the number of feeding stations available within lynx territories.

Conclusions/Significance

All lynx exposed to food supplementation made a regular use of extra food but individuals predicted to be competitively dominant visited stations more frequently than subordinates of the same breeding territory. Our results suggest that insufficient provision of supplementary food could restrict the access of juveniles, or even adult females, to feeding stations. Limited consumption by these target individuals may compromise the efficiency of the supplementary feeding programme at the population level, in endangered species that, as the Iberian lynx, exhibit marked sexual dimorphism in body size.     

Charophyte-rich microfacies in the Barremian of the Eastern Iberian Chain (Spain)

Non-marine carbonate microfacies based on charophytes are a useful palaeoenvironmental tool that has been poorly developed to date. In the Barremian of the Maestrat Basin (Eastern Iberian Chain), five such microfacies are described and interpreted in terms of sedimentology and palaeoecology: (1) Microfacies of clavatoracean remains are mudstones and wackestones rich in utricles and well-preserved charophyte thalli of the genus Clavatoraxis, representing in situ deposition of clavatoracean meadows. (2) Microfacies of filamentous algae and clavatoraceans are mudstones with a high proportion of calcified filaments attributed to cyanobacteria and green algae. This facies may correspond to the open lake benthos. (3) Microfacies of Intraclasts and Charophyte remains are packstones formed on the shores of freshwater lakes or brackish swamps that underwent subaerial desiccation and wave reworking. (4) Microfacies of Porocharacean remains are wackestones and packstones with abundant gyrogonite fragments of genus Porochara. They are related to the reworking of a porocharacean meadow in shallow brackish marshes. (5) Microfacies of Munieria grambasti Bystricky 1976 fragments are grainstones attributed to the reworking of Munieria-dominated meadows. In consequence to these results, a palaeoecological model based on charophyte remains is proposed as a useful tool in carbonate facies analysis.     

The messaoudensis-trifidum acritarch assemblage (Ordovician: late Tremadoc-early Arenig) of the Barriga Shale Formation, Sierra Morena (SW-Spain)

The messaoudensis-trifidum acritarch assemblage is currently considered to be characteristic of latest Tremadoc-earliest Arenig cold-water environments on the periphery of Gondwana, at high latitudes in the southern hemisphere. An integrated biostratigraphical study on both acritarchs and graptolites was until now only available for localities in northwest England. Reinvestigation of the messaoudensis-trifidum acritarch assemblage from the Barriga Formation (Sierra Morena, southwestern Spain), which contains some graptolite horizons that can be attributed to the latest Tremadoc (pre-phyllograptoides and pre-approximatus graptolite biozones), strengthens the biostratigraphical potential of the messaoudensis-trifidum assemblage, and the importance of some of the acritarch taxa recovered from these levels. It is concluded that the acritarch genera Coryphidium Vavrdová, 1972, Peteinosphaeridium Staplin et al., 1965 emend. Playford et al., 1995, Striatotheca, Burmann, 1970, and the Veryhachium lairdii group (rectangular veryhachiids) appear in the latest Tremadoc, and should not be considered as indicators of the base of the Arenig, as previously suggested.     

Proximate and ultimate causes of dispersal in the Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus

Most studies on the causes of animal dispersal focus on speciesof birds or small mammals, but there are few such studies onsolitary carnivores. A complete picture of the causes of animaldispersal is not possible without considering cases on a representativeset of animals. The Iberian lynx is a medium-size, solitarycarnivore that inhabits metapopulations, where dispersal playsa prominent role. Between 1983 and 1998 we studied the proximateand ultimate causes of dispersal in Iberian lynx in the Doñanametapopulation (southwestern Spain), based on radio-trackingof 49 individuals. Saturation of limited breeding areas in thissmall population leads to high dispersal rates in both sexes.Most lynxes dispersed from their natal area between 12 and 24months of age. Males younger than 1 year old tended to dispersein a higher proportion than females of the same age. However,high dispersal rates for both sexes by the age of 2 years andthe lack of differences in the dispersal distances do not supportinbreeding avoidance as an ultimate cause of dispersal. Dispersalmainly started between January and June (24/29 cases), whenmost social interactions occur, which supports the social subordinationhypothesis. Lynxes left the natal range at an earlier age fromthe local population with higher density, which supports intraspecificcompetition for resources as a cause for dispersal. However,prey seems not to be the limiting resource because dispersalmostly started during the season of increasing prey density,and individual probability of dispersal increases with preydensity in the natal area. Dispersers suffered higher mortalitythan nondispersing lynxes of the same age, due mostly to anthropogeniccauses. About half of the dispersers successfully settled ina territory at distances that differed between areas of origin,but not between sexes. Distances reached, shorter than thosereported for other similar-size solitary felids, are limitedby anthropogenic barriers that prevent connection with closermetapopulations.     

Feeding ecology of the proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus)

Proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) feeding behavior and ecology were studied at the Natai Lengkuas Station, Tanjung Puting National Park, Kalimantan Tengah, Indonesia. Data on feeding behavior were collected using scan sampling during group follows. Three vegetational plots containing 1,732 trees were established and monitored monthly for changes in fruit, flower, and young leaf production. Basal area and canopy cover were calculated and used in estimating food abundance. Proboscis monkeys were found to be folivore/frugivores, specializing in seed consumption. At least 55 different plant species were used as food sources, with a marked preference for Eugenia sp. 3/4,Ganua motleyana and Lophopetalum javanicum. These tree species were among the most frequent and most dominant. However, proboscis monkeys were selective feeders; use of tree species as food sources was not based simply on relative density. During times of low food abundance and/or availability proboscis monkeys switched dietary strategies and increased dietary diversity. The average total home range was estimated to be 130.3 ha, with an average group density of 5.2 groups per km². The average biomass per km² was estimated to be 499.5 kg. Given their high biomass and predilection for consuming seeds of dominant species, proboscis monkeys may help to maintain and increase vegetational diversity.