Molecular systematics of bats of the genus Myotis (Vespertilionidae) suggests deterministic ecomorphological convergences.

Based on extensive phenetic analyses, bats of the genus Myotis have been classically subdivided into four major subgenera each of which comprise many species with similar morphological and ecological adaptations. Each subgenus thus corresponds to a distinct "ecomorph" encompassing bat species exploiting their environment in a similar fashion. As three of these subgenera are cosmopolitan, regional species assemblages of Myotis usually include sympatric representatives of each ecomorph. If species within these ecomorphs are monophyletic, such assemblages would suggest extensive secondary dispersal across geographic areas. Conversely, these ecomorphological adaptations may have evolved independently through deterministic processes, such as adaptive radiation. In this case, phylogenetic reconstructions are not expected to sort species of the same ecomorph into monophyletic clades. To test these predictions, we reconstructed the phylogenetic history of 13 American, 11 Palaearctic, and 6 other Myotis species, using sequence data obtained from nearly 2 kb of mitochondrial genes (cytochrome b and nd1). Separate or combined analyses of these sequences clearly demonstrate the existence of several pairs of morphologically very similar species (i.e., sibling species) which are phylogenetically not closely related. None of the three tested subgenera constitute monophyletic units. For instance, Nearctic and Neotropical species currently classified into the three subgenera were clustered in a single, well-supported monophyletic clade. These species thus evolved independently of their ecological equivalents from the Palaearctic region. Independent adaptive radiations among species of the genus Myotis therefore produced strikingly similar evolutionary solutions in different parts of the world. Furthermore, all phylogenetic reconstructions based on mtDNA strongly supported the existence of an unsuspected monophyletic clade which included all assayed New World species plus M. brandtii (from the Palaearctic Region). This "American" clade thus radiated into a morphologically diverse species assemblage which evolved after the first Myotis species colonized the Americas. Molecular reconstructions support paleontological evidence that species of the genus Myotis had a burst of diversification during the late Miocene-early Pliocene epoch.     

四川绵阳洞栖蝙蝠多样性及受胁现状

1999～2005年,对四川省绵阳市洞栖性蝙蝠进行了凋杳。共采集到4科,5属,14种,约占四川蝙蝠种类31．8％,中国蝙蝠种类11．7％。其中,大足鼠耳蝠（Myotis ricketti）为中国特有种,中华鼠耳蝠（Myotis chinensis）已被列入《中国物种红色名录》中的易危（VU）种,南蝠（Iu io）等5种被列入近危（NT）种。调查中发现不少洞穴已被开发或正在被开发成旅游景点,人为干扰已严重威胁洞穴内蝙蝠的生存。建议对蝙蝠栖息地采取一定的保护措施,并加强保护蝙蝠的宣传教育。     

Food availability as a major driver in the evolution of life‐history strategies of sibling species

Life‐history theory predicts trade‐offs between reproductive and survival traits such that different strategies or environmental constraints may yield comparable lifetime reproductive success among conspecifics. Food availability is one of the most important environmental factors shaping developmental processes. It notably affects key life‐history components such as reproduction and survival prospect. We investigated whether food resource availability could also operate as an ultimate driver of life‐history strategy variation between species. During 13 years, we marked and recaptured young and adult sibling mouse‐eared bats (Myotis myotis and Myotis blythii) at sympatric colonial sites. We tested whether distinct, species‐specific trophic niches and food availability patterns may drive interspecific differences in key life‐history components such as age at first reproduction and survival. We took advantage of a quasi‐experimental setting in which prey availability for the two species varies between years (pulse vs. nonpulse resource years), modeling mark‐recapture data for demographic comparisons. Prey availability dictated both adult survival and age at first reproduction. The bat species facing a more abundant and predictable food supply early in the season started its reproductive life earlier and showed a lower adult survival probability than the species subjected to more limited and less predictable food supply, while lifetime reproductive success was comparable in both species. The observed life‐history trade‐off indicates that temporal patterns in food availability can drive evolutionary divergence in life‐history strategies among sympatric sibling species.     

Urbanization Level and Woodland Size Are Major Drivers of Woodpecker Species Richness and Abundance

Urbanization is a process globally responsible for loss of biodiversity and for biological homogenization. Urbanization may have a direct negative impact on species behaviour and indirect effects on species populations through alterations of their habitats, for example patch size and habitat quality. Woodpeckers are species potentially susceptible to urbanization. These birds are mostly forest specialists and the development of urban areas in former forests may be an important factor influencing their richness and abundance, but documented examples are rare. In this study we investigated how woodpeckers responded to changes in forest habitats as a consequence of urbanization, namely size and isolation of habitat patches, and other within-patch characteristics. We selected 42 woodland patches in a gradient from a semi-natural rural landscape to the city centre of Poznań (Western Poland) in spring 2010. Both species richness and abundance of woodpeckers correlated positively to woodland patch area and negatively to increasing urbanization. Abundance of woodpeckers was also positively correlated with shrub cover and percentage of deciduous tree species. Furthermore, species richness and abundance of woodpeckers were highest at moderate values of canopy openness. Ordination analyses confirmed that urbanization level and woodland patch area were variables contributing most to species abundance in the woodpecker community. Similar results were obtained in presence-absence models for particular species. Thus, to sustain woodpecker species within cities it is important to keep woodland patches large, multi-layered and rich in deciduous tree species.     

The importance of temperate woodland in travelling stock reserves for vertebrate biodiversity conservation

Summary Travelling stock reserves have well recognised and important commercial, cultural and other values in the pastoral and agricultural regions of Australia, but their conservation values remain poorly known. In general, many areas of woodlands within travelling stock reserves have not been subjected to the same high levels of degradation pressure as similar temperate woodlands on private land. In this study, we compared several measures of vertebrate biota in 217 permanent field sites located in travelling stock reserves and woodland remnants located almost exclusively on private land in the Murray Riverina and South West Slopes bioregions in southern New South Wales. We found that in comparison with temperate woodland remnants on private land, temperate woodland in travelling stock reserves tended to support more species of birds, more species of declining birds, and a greater abundance of arboreal marsupials. Temperate woodland in travelling stock reserves was more likely to be occupied by particular individual species of birds of conservation concern. However, such tenure differences were not consistent between bioregions. For example, the Rufous Whistler (Pachycephala rufiventris) and the Red‐capped Robin (Petroica goodenovii ) were significantly more likely to occupy temperate woodland in travelling stock reserves than temperate woodland on private land in the Murray Riverina but such effects were not apparent in the South West Slopes. Similarly, while the Grey‐crowned Babbler (Pomatostomus temporalis) was significantly more likely to occupy temperate woodland in travelling stock reserve sites in the South West Slopes, we found the opposite effect in Murray Riverina. We demonstrated that travelling stock reserves have important conservation values for some taxa and individual species. Because of the paucity of large ecological reserves in the Murray Riverina and South West Slopes bioregions, temperate woodlands located in travelling stock reserves should be considered as an important resource that contributes to a portfolio of vegetation assets in formerly woodland‐dominated, but now extensively cleared, agricultural landscapes.     

Prevalence and phenology of white-nose syndrome fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans in bats from Poland

Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd), a parasitic fungus (being responsible for a disease known as white-nose syndrome, WNS) that caused mass mortality of cave-dwelling, hibernating bats in North America, appears to be native of Europe, where it also occurs on wintering bats, but no similar outbreaks of WNS have been recorded. Herein, we provide the first account on prevalence and phenology of P. destructans in Poland. Bats were counted once per month, from October or January to May (2010-2013), in an abandoned ore mine in southern Poland. Presence of P. destructans in two samples was confirmed by sequencing of isolated fungal DNA. Observations of phenotypically identical mycosis on bats hibernating at this site in March 2006 are likely to be the first known records of P. destructans from Poland. All Pd-suspected individuals were Myotis myotis with an exception of one Myotis daubentonii. The first Pd-suspected bats were noted in mid-February, but their number was the highest in March, what overlapped with maximum numbers of hibernating M. myotis. The prevalence in March was 7%–27% of M. myotis individuals. No mass mortality of bats was observed in the mine, with only three dead individuals found in the hibernaculum which hosted up to 130 bats, representing 6–7 species.     

The diets of British bats (Chiroptera)

Sixty-one studies of the diets of 15 species of bats found in the British Isles are reviewed. Fourteen studies describe the diets of more than one species. Barbastella barbastellus and Plecotus spp. eat mainly Lepidoptera. Eptesicus serotinus takes mainly Coleoptera, but feeds on a wide range of prey, found in several habitats. Rhinolophus ferrumequinum hunts mainly Coleoptera and Lepidoptera by hawking, gleaning and perch hunting. Myotis bechsteinii takes mostly woodland families of Diptera and Lepidoptera. The remaining nine species eat mainly Diptera. Myotis nattereri feeds almost entirely on diurnal Diptera, gleaned from their nightly resting places. Rhinolophus hipposideros and Myotis mystacinus take mostly swarming crepuscular Diptera by hawking, probably near water and in damp wooded areas; both also glean. Myotis brandtii feeds on Diptera by hawking and gleaning; Nyctalus noctula by hawking. Myotis daubentonii, Pipistrellus spp. and Nyctalus leisleri eat many aquatic Diptera, and may therefore be expected to feed close to freshwater habitats. M. daubentonii hunts by trawling aquatic Diptera from the surface of water.     

Use of foraging habitats by bats in a Mediterranean area determined by acoustic surveys: conservation implications

We determined habitat use by foraging bats by broad-band acoustic surveys in 10 habitat types from a Mediterranean area (southern Italy). We applied discriminant functions to identify time-expanded echolocation calls from free-flying bats.
Moon phase and cloud cover had no effect on bat activity. Only Hypsugo savii was influenced by temperature, and activity of Myotis daubentonii and Myotis capaccinii was reduced at higher wind speeds. Both total numbers of bat passes and feeding buzzes were highest over rivers and lakes. Pipistrellus kuhlii and H. savii were most frequently recorded. Pipistrellus kuhlii , Pipistrellus pipistrellus and Tadarida teniotis proved generalists in using foraging habitats.
Water sites and conifer plantations were respectively the most and the least used habitats by H. savii . Rivers were especially important to Myotis bats, Miniopterus schreibersii and Pipistrellus pygmaeus . Unlike P. kuhlii , P. pipistrellus was frequent in beech woodlands; P. pygmaeus made a considerable use of chestnut woodlands and Myotis spp. were moderately active in both these woodland types.
A large number of endangered or vulnerable species featured in riparian habitats, broadleaved woodlands and olive groves. Riparian and woodland habitats constitute an important target for conservation. Typical land use forms such as woodlands used for chestnut production and traditionally managed olive groves should be encouraged in conservation plans. The negative impact of urbanisation on bats might be counteracted by fostering trees, gardens and small cultivated patches. Farmland practices should encourage landscape complexity and limit the use of pesticides.     

Molecular phylogeny of New World Myotis (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae) inferred from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA genes

Recent studies have shown that species in the genus Myotis have evolved a number of convergent morphological traits, many of which are more related to their mode of food procurement than to their phylogeny. Surprisingly, the biogeographic origins of these species are a much better predictor of phylogenetic relationships, than their morphology. In particular, a monophyletic clade that includes all New World species was apparent, but only a third of the 38 species have been analysed. In order to better understand the evolution of this clade, we present phylogenetic reconstructions of 17 Nearctic and 13 Neotropical species of Myotis compared to a number of Old World congeners. These reconstructions are based on mitochondrial cytochrome b (1140 bp), and nuclear Rag 2 genes (1148 bp). Monophyly of the New World clade is strongly supported in all analyses. Two Palaearctic sister species, one from the west (M. brandtii) and one from the east (M. gracilis), are embedded within the New World clade, suggesting that they either moved across the Bering Strait, or that they descended from the same ancestor that reached the New World. An emerging feature of these phylogenetic reconstructions is that limited faunal exchanges have occurred, including between the North and South American continents, further emphasizing the importance of biogeography in the radiation of Myotis. A fossil-calibrated, relaxed molecular-clock model was used to estimate the divergence time of New World lineages to 12.2+/-2.0 MYA. Early diversification of New World Myotis coincides with the sharp global cooling of the Middle Miocene. Radiation of the temperate-adapted Myotis may have been triggered by these climatic changes. The relative paucity of species currently found in South America might result from a combination of factors including the early presence of competitors better adapted to tropical habitats.     

Bird species turnover and stochastic extinction in woodland fragments

Year-to-year turnover in bird species composition was recorded across, the whole size range (0 02-30 ha) of 146 woods studied The mean number of resident breeding species both lost and gained per wood between consecutive breeding seasons was 2 (range 0-8) No relationship was found between this absolute turnover rate and woodland area, or any other of 24 predictor variables (describing woodland structure, isolation, connectedness and surrounding land use) Extriction and colonisation rates (in terms of numbers of species lost and gained) were also unrelated to woodland area In all sizes of woods, the species most likely to show local extinctions and colonisations were those with small populations within those woods, but the identity of the species concerned changed as woodland area increased In the smallest woods, the majority of turnover involved common species, such as wren and dunnock, which occurred in only small numbers in these small woods As woodland area increased, these species attained sufficient numbers to usually avoid stochastic extinction The majority of turnover was then due to more specialist (and less numerous) woodland species, such as great-spotted woodpecker and marsh tit, which were usually lacking in small woods In Britain, much existing broadleaved woodland falls within the size range studied Thus the numbers of many bird species are liable to be small enough for yearly turnover in woodland bird communities to be appreciable, and for the long-term persistence of individual species in particular woods to depend on dispersal     

Ecological change in British broadleaved woodland since 1947

Over the last 60 years Britain's broadleaved woodlands have undergone a complex pattern of ecological change. The total extent has expanded from c . 676 000 ha in 1947 to c . 904 000 ha in 2002, but there has also been significant turnover, with losses of ancient woodland and a gain from new planting. Structural change has occurred due, in part, to change in management. In 1947 21% of the broadleaved resource was classed as coppice, 28% as scrub and only 51% of the area as high forest, compared with 97% high forest in 2002. This has been accompanied by changes in ground flora and the regeneration pattern of tree species, which will impact upon the character of the woodlands. Woods have also become more ecologically isolated because of the decline in semi-natural vegetation in the surrounding countryside, although the long-term impacts of this are poorly understood. Other factors driving ecological change are increased pollution, change in grazing pressures, climate change, alien species and game management. Overall woodland specialist species and those of open habitats tend to be doing less well than woodland generalists. Progress has been made in reversing some adverse impacts such as acid deposition, and action is being taken to reduce the impact of others such as over-grazing by deer. However, some drivers, notably climate change, will be more difficult to address. In the long term integrated management of woods as landscape components whilst meeting economic and societal needs will be required.     

The Allerød/Younger Dryas transition in Wolin Island, northwest Poland, as reflected by pollen, macrofossils, and chemical content of an organic layer separating two aeolian series

A palaeoecological study including pollen, macrofossils, and chemical analyses of an organic sediment separating two series of aeolian cover sands has enabled us to reconstruct environmental changes during the Allerød/Younger Dryas transition in Wolin Island, northwest Poland. The Allerød woodland dominated by Pinus sylvestris became more open at the beginning of the Younger Dryas, when aeolian (wind) activity resulted in instability of the soil. During the early phase of the Younger Dryas the water level in the local basin distinctly raised, indicating a change to a wetter climate. This short-lasting phase was followed by an increased frequency and intensity of aeolian processes. However, the main aeolian event took place before the major expansion of Juniperus, not later than 10,780±120 b.p. Frequent woodland fires, probably due to the activities of Palaeolithic people, have been documented both for the Allerød and the Younger Dryas periods. Macrofossils of Alnus sp. found in the Allerød layer are of special interest in showing the presence of alder trees in northwest Poland as early as the Late-glacial.     

The spatial ecology of the whiskered bat (Myotis mystacinus) at the western extreme of its range provides evidence of regional adaptation

Although widespread, the ecology of the whiskered bat, Myotis mystacinus in Europe remains poorly understood. Ireland is positioned at the most western extreme of this species’ range. To ascertain the ecology of M. mystacinus at its geographic range extreme, the roosting behaviour, home range and habitat use of females in a maternity roost in Ireland was investigated by radio-tracking. M. mystacinus were active in a diversity of habitats: namely, mixed woodland, riparian vegetation, arable land and rough grassland. However, only mixed woodland and riparian habitats were selected as core foraging areas. This is in contrast to a previous study from Britain where only pasture was utilised but is in agreement with data from Slovakia, where woodland was also selected, whilst riparian areas were also utilised by this species in Germany. A high degree of overlap in the foraging areas of individuals was observed. A total of seven roosts were utilised by tracked bats and roost switching behaviour was observed. We discuss our contrasting results in respect to range limitations, regional variability in landscape structure and the composition of bat communities. The present results have implications for the conservation of M. mystacinus within Ireland and other parts of its range, highlighting the need for range wide ecological studies. Regional variability in the ecology of bats related to landscape factors is an important consideration for bat conservation and therefore must be incorporated into future management plans.     

Recovery of understorey vegetation after release from a long history of sheep grazing in a herb‐rich woodland

The effects of stock grazing on native grassy ecosystems in temperate southern Australia are well documented. However, less is known about the potential of ecosystems to recover after a long history of stock grazing and, in particular, whether the removal of stock will have positive, negative or neutral impacts on biodiversity. We examined the response of understorey vegetation to the removal of sheep grazing in a herb‐rich Eucalyptus camaldulensis (red gum) woodland in western Victoria. Using a space‐for‐time chronosequence, woodlands were stratified into groups based on their time‐since‐grazing removal; these were long‐ungrazed (>20 years), intermediate‐time‐since‐grazing (9–14 years), recently ungrazed (5 years) and continuously grazed. We found significantly higher species density in long‐ungrazed sites relative to sites with a more recent grazing history. No differences were found in species density between continuously grazed sites and those ungrazed in the previous 14 years. Species composition differed with time‐since‐grazing removal and indicator species analysis detected several native species (including tall native geophytes and herbs) associated with long‐ungrazed sites that were absent or in low abundance in the more recently grazed sites. Seven of the eight species significantly associated with continuously grazed sites were exotic. Removal of sheep grazing in red gum woodlands can have positive benefits for understorey diversity but it is likely that recovery of key indicators such as native species will be slow.     

Drosophilidae (Diptera) of Australia's Northern Territory: ecology and biogeography

Abstract   The drosophilid fauna is well documented in eastern Australia but is poorly known in other parts of the continent. This paper summarises what is known of this fauna in the Northern Territory (NT), and includes results from banana trapping in the humid and arid zones. The 42 recorded species include species that breed in fruit, fungi and/or flowers, and a larval predator of scale insects. Drosophilids occur in all three major climate zones (humid, semiarid and arid) but predominate in the humid zone. Banana-attracted species in the humid zone (wet-dry tropics) were common in all sampled habitats: urban, rainforest and open woodland. They included predominantly urban and/or rainforest species. Of the species collected in open woodland, some are likely to be breeding there, whereas others may have been intercepted during movement across the area. The semiarid fauna is a depauperate version of that found in the humid region. Only three species have been recorded in the arid region: an endemic arid specialist, and two cosmopolitan species ( D. simulans and D. melanogaster ) in urban Alice Springs. Overall, the NT drosophilid fauna represents a depauperate version of that found in eastern Australia, probably because of climatic factors and natural barriers to range expansion. There is little evidence of regional endemism, with probably only one (and at most three) species endemic to the NT, and no evidence of independent, natural dispersion from nearby Indonesia.     

The status of the Japanese and East Asian bats of the genus Myotis (Vespertilionidae) based on mitochondrial sequences

The genus Myotis includes the largest number of species in the family Vespertilionidae (Chiroptera), and its members are distributed throughout most of the world. To re-evaluate the phylogenetic position of East Asian Myotis species with respect to Myotis species worldwide, we analyzed mitochondrial gene sequences of NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 and cytochrome b from 24 East Asian individuals as well as 42 vespertilionid bats determined previously. The results suggest that: (1) some individuals having the same species name in Europe and Japan do not form a monophyletic clade, indicating that some bat species exhibit morphological convergence, (2) Japanese Myotis mystacinus forms a sister relationship with Myotis brandtii (Palaearctic), and both species are included in the American clade implying that an ancestor of these species originated in North America, and (3) the Black whiskered bat, Myotis pruinosus, is endemic to Japan and forms sister relationships with Myotis yanbarensis and Myotis montivagus collected from Okinawa (Japan) and Selangor (Malaysia), respectively, implying that M. pruinosus originated from the south. The systematics of Japanese and East Asian Myotis bats were revisited by considering their phylogenetic relationships. Our study provides the first extensive phylogenetic hypothesis of the genus Myotis that includes East Asian and Japanese species.     

Molecular phylogenetics, karyotypic diversity, and partition of the genus Myotis (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae)

Nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene are reported from bats of the genus Myotis including species of the endemic southern African subgenus Cistugo, Myotis (Cistugo) sebrai and Myotis (Cistugo) lesueuri. We also examined Myotis annectans from Southeast Asia, and Myotis macropus from Australia. The two species of Cistugo and Myotis annectans represent the only species of Myotis to differ in chromosome number from the common 2n=44 found in >40 species. Our results show that the two species of Cistugo are more divergent from the other species of Myotis than several other well-recognized genera and we recommend elevating Cistugo to full generic rank. Myotis annectans groups well within Myotis, clustering with other Southeast Asian and Japanese species, and thus represents the only species of Myotis known to have diverged from the common 2n=44 karyotype. Myotis macropus clusters within a clade that includes Southeast Asian species.     

Genetic diversity of two mitochondrial DNA genes in Spirometra erinaceieuropaei (Cestoda: Diphyllobothridae) from Poland

The tapeworm species Spirometra erinaceieuropaei was documented mainly in Asia and Europe. In recent years, plerocercoid larvae (spargana) of this parasite have been found in different hosts in north‐eastern Poland. The evolutionary history and way of S. erinaceieuropaei spreading across Eurasia have been not described yet. However, this phenomenon could be closely related to the evolutionary history and migration routes of studied tapeworm host species. We investigated the genetic variability and divergence pattern among S. erinaceieuropaei populations in intermediate and paratenic hosts from north‐eastern Poland based on complete mitochondrial sequences of cytochrome b (cytb) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (cox1) genes. Analysis of 319 consolidated sequences of these two genes showed no genetic structure across study area. Comparison of sequences from Poland and China showed distinct separation of S. erinaceieuropaei populations from these two regions. They split from their common ancestor approximately 28.6 million years ago. Demographic expansion of Polish population of S. erinaceieuropaei started from glacial refugia approximately 12.5 thousand years ago, and recent population expansion has been observed in the tapeworm population from north‐eastern Poland.     

Spatial and temporal woodland patterns along the lower Turkwel River, Kenya

Spatial and temporal patterns of riverine woodlands in arid regions of Africa are poorly documented despite their considerable conservation value. We studied 1540 ha of riverine woodland in the lower Turkwel River floodplain, Kenya, between 1990 and 1998. Forty‐one woodland patches were mapped and their soil physical and chemical characteristics, tree species diversity, woody cover, tree density, wood volume and woodland regeneration were determined. The riverine woodland comprised nine vegetation types and a total of 14 woody species. Woodland patch mosaics were associated with microtopographical features and selected soil attributes. The most important woody species were Hyphaene compressa H. Wendl., Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne and Cadaba rotundifolia Forssk. The exotic Prosopis chilensis (Mol.) St. was invading parts of the riverine woodland. Overall, woody species diversity was low compared to similar riverine woodlands in East Africa. Tree density, wood volume and woody plant regeneration declined over the 8‐year study period, while woody cover was unchanged. Reduced tree density, wood volume and regeneration of woody species might be linked to changes in river flood patterns following the impoundment of the Turkwel Gorge Dam. It is suggested that spatially heterogeneous and temporally stochastic regeneration events, together with occasional tree mortality caused by channel abandonment, create the complex pattern of woodland patches in the lower Turkwel River floodplain. The mapped woodland patches may serve as monitoring units, which in future could reveal the interplay between changes in flooding patterns as a result of dam impoundment, anthropogenic disturbance and the well‐being of the riverine woodlands.     

Bats of Lithuania: distribution, status and protection

The Lithuanian bat fauna includes 14 species. Myotis daubentoni, Pipistrellus nathusii, Plecotus auritus and Eptesicus serotinus are the most abundant and widespread species, although recently P. auritus has disappeared from some hibernacula. There are still abundant populations of Myotis nattereri, Myotis brandti and Barbastella barbastellus in hibernacula, while their status in summer is unknown. Myotis dasycneme is probably very rare and endangered. The status of Myotis mystacinus and Nyctalus leisleri is not clear, but they are most likely very rare because very few specimens have been found. So far little is known about status of Nyctalus noctula, Pipistrellus pipistrellus, Eptesicus nilssoni and Vespertilio murinus because these species are common only during autumn bat migration along the Baltic Sea coast. Two other species, Myotis bechsteini and Rhinolophus hipposideros, have been rejected from the list of bats of Lithuania, because old references to records of these species were not reliable. From what is currently known it seems that: (i) the northern limits of distribution of B. barbastellus and E. serotinus reach the middle of Lithuania between 55°N and 56°N, which may also be the southern limit of abundance of E. nilssoni; (ii) the wintering site with the largest numbers of bats in Lithuania is the vaults of Kaunas fortress, where every year eight species are found hibernating in numbers estimated as follows: M. daubentoni 400–500, M. nattereri 200–300, M. brandti 80–100, B.barbastellus 200–300, P. auritus 40–60, M. dasycneme 15–20 and a few E. serotinus and E. nilssoni. In Lithuania nine bat species have been protected by law since 1991, as species included in the Red Data Book. Also 11 bat reserves have been designated in Kaunas fortress to protect the most important hibernation sites in Lithuania.