Neuregulin-1-beta1 enters brain and spinal cord by receptor-mediated transport

Proteins of the neuregulin (NRG) family play important regulatory roles in neuronal survival and synaptic activity. NRG-1-beta1 has particular potential as a therapeutic agent because it enhances myelination of neurites in spinal cord explants. In this study, we determined the permeation of NRG-1-beta1 across the blood-brain and blood-spinal cord barriers (BBB and BSCB respectively). Intact radioactively labeled NRG-1-beta1 had a saturable and relatively rapid influx rate from blood to the CNS in mice. Capillary depletion studies showed that NRG-1-beta1 entered the parenchyma of the brain and spinal cord rather than being trapped in the capillaries that compose the BBB. The possible mechanism of receptor-mediated transport was shown by the ability of antibodies to erbB3 and erbB4 receptors to inhibit the influx. Lipophilicity, less important for such saturable transport mechanisms, was measured by the octanol : buffer partition coefficient and found to be low. The results indicate that NRG-1-beta1 enters spinal cord and brain by a saturable receptor-mediated mechanism, which provides the opportunity for possible therapeutic manipulation at the BBB level.     

Neuregulin 1 Controls Glutamate Uptake by Up-regulating Excitatory Amino Acid Carrier 1 (EAAC1)

Neuregulin 1 (NRG1) is a trophic factor that is thought to have important roles in the regulating brain circuitry. Recent studies suggest that NRG1 regulates synaptic transmission, although the precise mechanisms remain unknown. Here we report that NRG1 influences glutamate uptake by increasing the protein level of excitatory amino acid carrier (EAAC1). Our data indicate that NRG1 induced the up-regulation of EAAC1 in primary cortical neurons with an increase in glutamate uptake. These in vitro results were corroborated in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of mice given NRG1. The stimulatory effect of NRG1 was blocked by inhibition of the NRG1 receptor ErbB4. The suppressed expression of ErbB4 by siRNA led to a decrease in the expression of EAAC1. In addition, the ablation of ErbB4 in parvalbumin (PV)-positive neurons in PV-ErbB4^−/− mice suppressed EAAC1 expression. Taken together, our results show that NRG1 signaling through ErbB4 modulates EAAC1. These findings link proposed effectors in schizophrenia: NRG1/ErbB4 signaling perturbation, EAAC1 deficit, and neurotransmission dysfunction.     

Developmental Regulation of Neuregulin1 Isoforms and erbB Receptor Expression in Intact Rat Dorsal Root Ganglia

Neuregulins (NRGs) are a family of growth factors which bind to the erbB family of tyrosine kinase receptors. The exact nature and interaction of specific NRG isoforms and erbB receptors that occur during the development of the nervous system have not been reported. In order to better understand the role that different NRG isoforms and erbB receptors play in the differentiation, proliferation, and survival of neurons and glial cells, we isolated protein and mRNA from dorsal root ganglia of rat pups between embryonic day (E) 13 and postnatal day (P) 15. The relative expression levels of the NRGs and erbB receptors for the different time points were compared using both Western and RT-PCR analyses. NRG1-type1α protein levels were highest at E-13 and then decreased by approximately 40% and remained constant through P-15. In contrast, mRNA levels for NRG1-type1α remained constant from E-15 to P-15. The protein levels for NRG1-type 1β were similar to NRG1-type1α at E-13 with an approximate 40% increase in the levels at E-15 and E-17 followed by a decrease to E-13 levels for the remainder of the developmental time periods. The mRNA levels for NRG1-type1β remained constant from E-15 to P-15. The protein and mRNA expression patterns for each erbB receptor were distinctive. The protein levels for erbB-2 were highest at E-19 while erbB-3 levels were highest at E-17 and E-18. ErbB-4 protein levels were highest at E-13 and decreased through P-15. The developmental pattern for erbB-2 and erbB-4 mRNA levels had no relation to that of the corresponding protein levels while the mRNA levels for erbB-3 were highest at E-17 and E-18 similar to the pattern observed for the erbB-3 protein levels. We concluded that both NRG and erbB expression in dorsal root ganglia are mostly translationally controlled and that NRG1 isoforms and their erbB receptors are not coordinately regulated. Special issue article in honor of Dr. George DeVries.     

An ERBB3/ERBB2 oncogenic unit plays a key role in NRG1 signaling and melanoma cell growth and survival

We recently identified neuregulin‐1 (NRG1) as a novel target of Notch1 required in Notch‐dependent melanoma growth. ERBB3 and ERBB4, tyrosine kinase receptors specifically activated by NRG1, have been shown to be either elevated in melanoma cell lines and tumors or to be mutated in 20% of melanomas, respectively. While these data support key roles of NRG1 and its receptors in the pathogenesis of melanoma, whether ERBB3 and ERBB4 display redundant or exclusive functions is not known. Here, we show that ERBB3 and ERBB4 inhibition results in distinct outcomes. ERBB3 inhibition ablates the cellular responses to NRG1, results in AKT inactivation and leads to cell growth arrest and apoptotic cell death. In contrast, ERBB4 knockdown mildly affects cell growth, has no effects on cell survival and, importantly, does not alter the responses to NRG1. Finally, we identified ERBB2 as a key coreceptor in NRG1‐dependent ERBB3 signaling. ERBB2 forms a complex with ERBB3, and its inhibition recapitulates the phenotypes observed upon ERBB3 ablation. We propose that an NRG1‐ERBB3‐ERBB2 signaling unit operates in melanoma cells where it promotes growth and survival.     

Spine impairment in mice high-expressing neuregulin 1 due to LIMK1 activation

The genes encoding for neuregulin1 (NRG1), a growth factor, and its receptor ErbB4 are both risk factors of major depression disorder and schizophrenia (SZ). They have been implicated in neural development and synaptic plasticity. However, exactly how NRG1 variations lead to SZ remains unclear. Indeed, NRG1 levels are increased in postmortem brain tissues of patients with brain disorders. Here, we studied the effects of high-level NRG1 on dendritic spine development and function. We showed that spine density in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus was reduced in mice (ctoNrg1) that overexpressed NRG1 in neurons. The frequency of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) was reduced in both brain regions of ctoNrg1 mice. High expression of NRG1 activated LIMK1 and increased cofilin phosphorylation in postsynaptic densities. Spine reduction was attenuated by inhibiting LIMK1 or blocking the NRG1–LIMK1 interaction, or by restoring NRG1 protein level. These results indicate that a normal NRG1 protein level is necessary for spine homeostasis and suggest a pathophysiological mechanism of abnormal spines in relevant brain disorders.Subject terms: Molecular neuroscience, Schizophrenia     

尼罗罗非鱼TCP-1-beta和TCP-1-eta的分子特征及其低温诱导表达

为了研究尼罗罗非鱼耐寒性状的分子基础并为耐寒品种选育提供参考,研究从尼罗罗非鱼中克隆了HSP60家族TCP-1-beta和TCP-1-eta基因并对其在低温诱导下的表达特征进行了分析。尼罗罗非鱼TCP-1-beta cDNA长度为1755 bp,包括1605 bp的完整开放阅读框,编码534个氨基酸;尼罗罗非鱼TCP-1-eta cDNA长度1651 bp,包括1638 bp的完整开放阅读框,编码545个氨基酸。与其他物种同源基因的蛋白序列比对结果显示,TCP-1-beta和TCP-1-eta蛋白在物种间同源性很高,且都具有保守的ATP结合结构域等,预示其在物种间功能的保守性。实时荧光定量PCR结果表明:TCP-1-beta和TCP-1-eta在各组织中呈遍在表达,但在肌肉中表达量最高;诱导温度从22℃降至12℃,不同低温诱导48h后TCP-1-beta和TCP-1-eta均呈上调表达,在18℃时表达开始上调,随着低温胁迫程度加强,表达上调幅度增大,至12℃时表达量达到最高,TCP-1-beta和TCP-1-eta上调幅度分别达到常温的12.2倍和10.7倍。这些结果预示在尼罗罗非鱼中,TCP-1-beta和TCP-1-eta是潜在的耐寒相关基因。     

Neuregulin Mediates F-actin-driven Cell Migration through Inhibition of Protein Kinase D1 via Rac1 Protein

Neuregulin (NRG; heregulin) is overexpressed in ∼30% of breast cancers and mediates various processes involved in tumor progression, including tumor cell migration and invasion. Here, we show that NRG mediates its effects on tumor cell migration via PKD1. Downstream of RhoA, PKD1 can prevent directed cell migration through phosphorylation of its substrate SSH1L. NRG exerts its inhibitory effects on PKD1 through Rac1/NADPH oxidase, leading to decreased PKD1 activation loop phosphorylation and decreased activity toward SSH1L. The consequence of PKD1 inhibition by NRG is decreased binding of 14-3-3 to SSH1L, localization of SSH1L to F-actin at the leading edge, and increased cofilin activity, resulting in increased reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton and cell motility. Our data provide a mechanism through which the Rho GTPase Rac1 cross-talks with PKD1 signaling pathways to facilitate directed cell migration.     

Neuregulin1beta1 Antagonizes Apoptosis Via ErbB4-Dependent Activation of PI3-Kinase/Akt in APP/PS1 Transgenic Mice

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by the deposition of beta-amyloid protein (Aβ) and extensive neuronal cell death. Apoptosis plays a crucial role in loss of neurons in AD. Neuregulin1 (NRG1) has been found to protect neurons from oxygen glucose deprivation induced apoptosis and hypoxia ischemia induced apoptosis. However, the relationship between NRG1 and apoptosis related protein expression in AD and its mechanism remain uncertain. The present study explores the effects of NRG1 on Aβ-induced apoptosis in AD. In this study, extracellular domain of NRG1beta1 (NRG1β1-ECD) promoted the expression of p-ErbB4 receptor, p-Akt and increased the level of Bcl-2 both in APP/PS1 transgenic mice and in vitro. In primary culture of neurons, the level of Bcl-2 protein decreased significantly after Aβ treatment. These changes were inhibited by pretreatment of neurons with NRG1β1-ECD. A specific inhibitor of PI3-kinase/Akt pathway, wortmannin, significantly abrogated the effects of NRG1β1-ECD on p-Akt and Bcl-2 levels. Furthermore, the expression of PI3-kinase/Akt by NRG1β1-ECD was ErbB4-dependent. Our data demonstrated that NRG1β1-ECD might serve as an obvious neuroprotection in AD, and the possible protective mechanism occurs most likely via ErbB4-dependent activation of PI3-kinase/Akt pathway.     

FLO11 is essential for flor formation caused by the C-terminal deletion of NRG1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The flor strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae form a flor on the surface of wine after alcoholic fermentation. High hydrophobicity of the cell surface is suggested to be important for flor formation by the flor wine yeasts. However, the molecular mechanism of flor formation is not clear. We found that expression of C-terminal deleted NRG1 lacking its two C2H2 zinc finger motifs (NRG1(1-470)) on the multicopy plasmid conferred the ability to form a flor to a non-flor laboratory strain. The cell surface hydrophobicity of NRG1(1-470) was higher than of the non-flor strain. Disruption of the Nrg1p-repressed gene FLO11, which encodes a cell surface glycoprotein that functions as a flocculin or an adhesin, abolished flor formation. Moreover, expression of FLO11 on a multicopy plasmid could also cause flor formation. These results indicate that FLO11 is essential for flor formation by NRG1(1-470). In addition, the results suggest that the C-terminal truncated form of Nrg1p exerts a dominant negative effect on FLO11 repression, resulting in FLO11 expression and, thus, flor formation.     

Extracellular domains drive homo- but not hetero-dimerization of erbB receptors

Many different growth factor ligands, including epidermal growth factor (EGF) and the neuregulins (NRGs), regulate members of the erbB/HER family of receptor tyrosine kinases. These growth factors induce erbB receptor oligomerization, and their biological specificity is thought to be defined by the combination of homo- and hetero-oligomers that they stabilize upon binding. One model proposed for ligand-induced erbB receptor hetero-oligomerization involves simple heterodimerization; another suggests that higher order hetero-oligomers are 'nucleated' by ligand-induced homodimers. To distinguish between these possibilities, we compared the abilities of EGF and NRG1-beta1 to induce homo- and hetero-oligomerization of purified erbB receptor extracellular domains. EGF and NRG1-beta1 induced efficient homo-oligomerization of the erbB1 and erbB4 extracellular domains, respectively. In contrast, ligand-induced erbB receptor extracellular domain hetero-oligomers did not form (except for s-erbB2-s-erbB4 hetero-oligomers). Our findings argue that erbB receptor extracellular domains do not recapitulate most heteromeric interactions of the erbB receptors, yet reproduce their ligand-induced homo-oligomerization properties very well. This suggests that mechanisms for homo- and hetero-oligomerization of erbB receptors are different, and contradicts the simple heterodimerization hypothesis prevailing in the literature.     

Proteolytic Processing of Neuregulin 1 Type III by Three Intramembrane-cleaving Proteases

Numerous membrane-bound proteins undergo regulated intramembrane proteolysis. Regulated intramembrane proteolysis is initiated by shedding, and the remaining stubs are further processed by intramembrane-cleaving proteases (I-CLiPs). Neuregulin 1 type III (NRG1 type III) is a major physiological substrate of β-secretase (β-site amyloid precursor protein-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1)). BACE1-mediated cleavage is required to allow signaling of NRG1 type III. Because of the hairpin nature of NRG1 type III, two membrane-bound stubs with a type 1 and a type 2 orientation are generated by proteolytic processing. We demonstrate that these stubs are substrates for three I-CLiPs. The type 1-oriented stub is further cleaved by γ-secretase at an ϵ-like site five amino acids N-terminal to the C-terminal membrane anchor and at a γ-like site in the middle of the transmembrane domain. The ϵ-cleavage site is only one amino acid N-terminal to a Val/Leu substitution associated with schizophrenia. The mutation reduces generation of the NRG1 type III β-peptide as well as reverses signaling. Moreover, it affects the cleavage precision of γ-secretase at the γ-site similar to certain Alzheimer disease-associated mutations within the amyloid precursor protein. The type 2-oriented membrane-retained stub of NRG1 type III is further processed by signal peptide peptidase-like proteases SPPL2a and SPPL2b. Expression of catalytically inactive aspartate mutations as well as treatment with 2,2′-(2-oxo-1,3-propanediyl)bis[(phenylmethoxy)carbonyl]-l-leucyl-l-leucinamide ketone inhibits formation of N-terminal intracellular domains and the corresponding secreted C-peptide. Thus, NRG1 type III is the first protein substrate that is not only cleaved by multiple sheddases but is also processed by three different I-CLiPs.     

Quantitative evaluation of refolding conditions for a disulfide-bond-containing protein using a concise ¹⁸O-labeling technique

A concise method was developed for quantifying native disulfide‐bond formation in proteins using isotopically labeled internal standards, which were easily prepared with proteolytic ¹⁸O‐labeling. As the method has much higher throughput to estimate the amounts of fragments possessing native disulfide arrangements by matrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionization time‐of‐flight mass spectrometry (MALDI‐TOF‐MS) than the conventional high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analyses, it allows many different experimental conditions to be assessed in a short time. The method was applied to refolding experiments of a recombinant neuregulin 1‐β1 EGF‐like motif (NRG1‐β1), and the optimum conditions for preparing native NRG1‐β1 were obtained by quantitative comparisons. Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) was most effective at the reduced/oxidized glutathione ratio of 2:1 for refolding the denatured sample NRG1‐β1 with the native disulfide bonds.     

Autocrine interferon-beta stimulation augments nitric oxide production by mouse macrophage J774A.1 cells infected with herpes simplex virus type 1

The pathogenic roles of nitric oxide (NO) in mouse models have been reported for herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1)-induced pneumonia as well as endotoxin shock. We compared the mechanism of NO production induced by HSV-1 with that induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) using a mouse macrophage cell line, J774A.1. Both HSV-1 and LPS induced NO production as well as antiviral activity, which were attenuated by anti-interferon (IFN)-beta treatment. These results suggest that autocrine IFN-beta plays a role in NO release by J774A.1 cells stimulated with HSV-1 or LPS.     

Effects of endogenous serum neuregulin-1β on morbidity and mortality in patients with heart failure and left ventricular systolic dysfunction

Abstract

Context: Improved left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) following administration of recombinant human Neuregulin-1β (NRG), epidermal growth factor (EGF) involved in cardiomyocyte repair/survival, has been observed in patients with systolic heart failure (HF).

Methods: Serum NRG was measured by ELISA in 248 patients with NYHA class I–IV HF.

Results: NRG exhibited a marginally significant effect on LVEF trajectory over 11?months (p?=?0.07). There is no apparent level of NRG that predicts improved survival.

Conclusions: There is a potential relationship between serum NRG and improved LVEF, indicating the need to investigate the utility of NRG in predicting HF outcomes, including LVEF maintenance.     

Neuregulin-1 enhances depolarization-induced GABA release

Neuregulin-1 (NRG1), a regulator of neural development, has been shown to regulate neurotransmission at excitatory synapses. Although ErbB4, a key NRG1 receptor, is expressed in glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD)-positive neurons, little is known about its role in GABAergic transmission. We show that ErbB4 is localized at GABAergic terminals of the prefrontal cortex. Our data indicate a role of NRG1, both endogenous and exogenous, in regulation of GABAergic transmission. This effect was blocked by inhibition or mutation of ErbB4, suggesting the involvement of ErbB4. Together, these results indicate that NRG1 regulates GABAergic transmission via presynaptic ErbB4 receptors, identifying a novel function of NRG1. Because both NRG1 and ErbB4 have emerged as susceptibility genes of schizophrenia, these observations may suggest a mechanism for abnormal GABAergic neurotransmission in this disorder.     

Neuregulin1 signaling promotes dendritic spine growth through kalirin

The biological functions of the neuregulin 1 (NRG1) and ERBB4 genes have received much recent attention due to several studies showing associations between these genes and schizophrenia. Moreover, reduced forebrain dendritic spine density is a consistent feature of schizophrenia. It is thus important to understand the mechanisms whereby NRG1 and erbB4 modulate spine morphogenesis. Here, we show that long‐term incubation with NRG1 increases both spine size and density in cortical pyramidal neurons. NRG1 also enhances the content of α‐amino‐3‐hydroxy‐5‐methylisoxazole‐4‐propionate receptors in spines. Knockdown of ERBB4 expression prevented the effects of NRG1 on spine size, but not on spine density. The effects of NRG1 and erbB4 on spines were mediated by the RacGEF kalirin, a well‐characterized regulator of dendritic spines. Finally, we show that environmental enrichment, known to promote spine growth, robustly enhances the levels of erbB4 protein in the forebrain. These findings provide a mechanistic link between NRG1 signaling and spine morphogenesis.

     

Improving murine embryonic stem cell differentiation into cardiomyocytes with neuregulin-1: differential expression of microRNA

Identification of factors that direct embryonic stem (ES) cell (ESC) differentiation into functional cardiomyocytes is essential for successful use of ESC-based therapy for cardiac repair. Neuregulin-1 (NRG1) and microRNA play important roles in the cardiac differentiation of ESCs. Understanding how NRG1 regulates microRNA will provide new mechanistic insights into the role of NRG1 on ESCs. It may also lead to the discovery of novel microRNAs that are important for ESC cardiac differentiation. The objective of this study was to assess the microRNA expression profile during NRG1-induced ESC cardiac differentiation. Murine ESCs were incubated with a recombinant NRG1β or an inhibitor of ErbB2 or ErbB4 during hanging drop-induced cardiac differentiation. The expression of cardiac-specific markers and microRNAs was analyzed by RT-PCR and microRNA array, respectively. We found that the expression of NRG1 and the ErbB receptors was increased during hanging drop-induced cardiac differentiation of ESCs. NRG1 stimulation during a specific developmental window enhanced, while inhibition of the ErbB2 or ErbB4 receptor inhibited, cardiac differentiation of ESCs. NRG1 increased the expression of mmu-miR-296-3p and mmu-miR-200c*, and decreased mmu-miR-465b-5p. Inhibition of mmu-miR-296-3p or mmu-miR-200c* decreased, while inhibition of mmu-miR-465-5p increased, the differentiation of ESCs into the cardiac lineage. This is the first report demonstrating that microRNAs are differentially regulated by NRG1-ErbB signaling during cardiac differentiation of ESCs. This study has also identified new microRNAs that are important for ESC cardiac differentiation.