Investigations of the Blue-green Fluorescence Emission of Plant Leaves

The UV light (337 nm) induced blue-green fluorescence emission of green leaves is characterized at room temperature (298 K) by a maximum near 450 nm (blue region) and a shoulder near 525 nm (green region) and was here also studied at 77 K. At liquid nitrogen temperature (77 K) the blue (F450) and green fluorescence (F525) are much enhanced as is the red chlorophyll fluorescence near 735 nm. During development of green tobacco leaves the blue fluorescence F450 (77 K) is shifted towards longer wavelengths from about 410 nm to 450 nm. The isolated leaf epidermis of tobacco showed only slight fluorescence emission with a maximum near 410 nm. The green fluorescence F525 was found to mainly originate from the mesophyll of the leaf, its intensity increased when the epidermis was removed. The red chlorophyll fluorescence emission was also enhanced when the epidermis was stripped off; this considerably changed the blue/red fluorescence ratios F450/F690 and F450/F735. The epidermis, with its cell wall and UV-light-absorbing substances in its vacuole, plays the role of a barrier for the exciting UV-light. In contrast to intact and homogenized leaves, isolated intact chloroplasts and thylakoid membranes did not exhibit a blue-green fluorescence emission.     

Appearance of a State 1 – State 2 transition during chloroplast development in the wheat leaf: Energetic and structural considerations

The ability of developing chloroplasts to dynamically regulate the distribution of excitation energy between photosystem 1 and photosystem 2, and thus perform a State 1 – State 2 transition, was examined from analyses of chlorophyll fluorescence kinetics in 4- and 8-day-old Triticum aestivum L. cv. Maris Dove leaves grown under a diurnal light regime. Chloroplasts at all stages of development in the two leaf systems could undergo a State 1 – State 2 transition, except those found in the basal 0.5 cm of the 4-day-old leaf. The ability to physiologically modify the excitation energy distribution between the chlorophyll matrices of the two photosystems developed after the development of mature, fully photochemically competent photosystem 2 units and the appearance of excitation energy transfer between photosystem 2 and photosystem 1. Also, changes in the degree of energetic interaction between the two photosystems, in vivo rates of electron transport and the chlorophyll a/b ratio could not be correlated with the appearance of a State 1 – State 2 transition. Ultrastructural studies demonstrated a 32% increase in the degree of thylakoid appression in chloroplasts at the base of the 8-day-old leaf compared to the situation in the basal 0.5 cm of the 4-day-old leaf. This difference in thylakoid stacking can account for the differing abilities of these two tissues to perform a State 1 – State 2 transition when considered in the context of the distribution of the two photosystems within appressed and non-appressed regions of thylakoid membranes.     

SPAD chlorophyll meter reading can be pronouncedly affected by chloroplast movement

Non-destructive assessment of chlorophyll content has recently been widely done by chlorophyll meters based on measurement of leaf transmittance (e.g. the SPAD-502 chlorophyll meter measures the leaf transmittance at 650 and 940 nm). However, the leaf transmittance depends not only on the content of chlorophylls but also on their distribution in leaves. The chlorophyll distribution within leaves is co-determined by chloroplast arrangement in cells that depends on light conditions. When tobacco leaves were exposed to a strong blue light (about 340 μmol of photons m⁻² s⁻¹), a very pronounced increase in the leaf transmittance was observed as chloroplasts migrated from face position (along cell walls perpendicular to the incident light) to side position (along cell walls parallel to the incoming light) and the SPAD reading decreased markedly. This effect was more pronounced in the leaves of young tobacco plants compared with old ones; the difference between SPAD values in face and side position reached even about 35%. It is shown how the chloroplast movement changes a relationship between the SPAD readings and real chlorophyll content. For an elimination of the chloroplast movement effect, it can be recommended to measure the SPAD values in leaves with a defined chloroplasts arrangement.     

玉米C4光合叶不同部位解剖结构和光抑制特性的比较

以玉米第54i全展叶（C4光合叶）为材料,分别测定基部、中部和顶部的光合速率后,将叶片置于强光（2000μmol·m^2·s^-1）下处理3h和暗中恢复3h,再测定这3个部位在处理期间的叶绿素荧光参数变化;然后分别从叶片的基部、中部和顶部取样观察显微结构和超微结构,测定叶绿素含量。结果表明,3个部位光合速率和叶绿素含量的大小依次为：中部〉顶部〉基部。基部的维管束鞘细胞叶绿体数量少,体积小,排列无规律,类囊体膜有部分垛叠;中部和顶部维管束鞘细胞叶绿体数量多,体积大,大部分围绕维管束呈离心排列,类囊体膜垛叠消失。在强光下,基部、中部和顶部均发生光抑制,但光抑制程度不同,根据严重度依次为：基部〉顶部〉中部,3个部位在暗中的光抑制恢复能力依次为：中部〉顶部〉基部。与叶基部相比,叶中部在强光下能维持较高的电子传递效率（φEo）和较低的热耗散比率（φDo）。这表明,C4光合循环是保持较高电子传递效率、减轻光抑制的重要因子。     

墨兰幼叶和成熟叶不同部位叶绿体超微结构和光合作用

墨兰试管苗植株成熟叶片叶绿体基粒较发达,类囊本膜垛叠较紧密。幼叶叶绿体中少有亲锇颗粒,成熟叶的叶绿体中往往既有亲锇颗粒又有淀粉粒。幼叶中基粒数目比成熟叶的少,叶绿体也比成熟叶的小。幼叶的光合放氧速率比成熟叶的低。幼叶中叶尖部叶绿体最大而叶基部最小,但叶尖部的光合放氧速率比叶基部小。成熟叶中叶绿体大小及光合放氧速率区别不明显。通过对各部位叶绿素含量的测定发现,叶绿素含量与光合放氧速率之间没有正相关性     

Comparative ultrastructural properties of pallisade tissue and spongy tissue chloroplasts from normal and mutant leaves of Pisum sativum L.*

Abstract. The ultrastructure of chloroplasts from palisade and spongy tissue was studied in order to analyse the adaptation of chloroplasts to the light gradient within the bifacial leaves of pea. Chloroplasts of two nuclear gene mutants of Pisum sativum (chlorotica-29 and chlorophyll b-less 130A), grown under normal light conditions, were compared with the wild type (WT) garden-pea cv. ‘Dippes Gelbe Viktoria’. The differentiation of the thylakoid membrane system of plastids from normal pea leaves exhibited nearly the same degree of grana formation in palisade and in spongy tissue. Using morphometrical measurements, only a slight increase in grana stacking capacity was found in chloroplasts of spongy tissue. In contrast, chloroplasts of mutant leaves differed in grana development in palisade and spongy tissue, respectively. Their thylakoid systems appeared to be disorganized and not developed as much as in chloroplasts from normal pea leaves. Grana contained fewer lamellae per granum, the number of grana per chloroplast section was reduced and the length of appressed thylakoid regions was decreased. Nevertheless, chloroplasts of the mutants were always differentiated into grana and stroma thylakoids. The structural changes observed and the reduction of the total chlorophyll content correlated with alterations in the polypeptide composition of thylakoid membrane preparations from mutant chloroplasts. In sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), polypeptide bands with a relative molecular mass of 27 and 26 kilodalton (kD) were markedly reduced in mutant chloroplasts. These two polypeptides represented the major apoproteins of the light harvesting chlorophyll a/b complex from photosystem II (LHC-II) as inferred from a comparison with the electrophoretic mobility of polypeptides isolated from the LHC-II.     

THE EFFECT OF LIGHT INTENSITY AND TEMPERATURE ON PLANT GROWTH AND CHLOROPLAST ULTRASTRUCTURE IN SOYBEAN

Soybean plants grown in controlled environment cabinets under light intensities of 220 w/m² or 90 w/m² (400–700 nm) and day to night temperatures of 27.5–22.5 C or 20.0–12.5 C in all combinations, exhibited differences in growth rate, leaf anatomy, chloroplast ultrastructure, and leaf starch, chlorophyll, and chloroplast lipid contents. Leaves grown under the lower light intensity at both temperatures had palisade mesophyll chloroplasts containing well-formed grana. The corresponding leaves developed under the higher light intensity had very rudimentary grana. Chloroplasts from high temperature and high light had grana consisting of two or three appressed thylakoids, while grana from the low temperature were confined to occasional thylakoid overlap. Spongy mesophyll chloroplasts were less sensitive to growth conditions. Transfer experiments showed that the ultrastructure of chloroplasts from mature leaves could be modified by changing the conditions, though the effect was less marked than when the leaf was growing.     

Fluorescence induction in whole leaves: Differentiation between the two leaf sides and adaptation to different light regimes

In a variety of plants, the induction kinetics of chlorophyll fluorescence vary substantially depending on whether measured on the upper or lower side of the same leaf. The responses are comparable to those of plants grown under sun and shade conditions. Leaf morphology appears not to be the primary cause of the differences since inversion of the leaves can lead to reversed fluorescence responses. Fluorescence induction was analyzed in control and inverted leaves, and in one case, in chloroplasts from sun and shade leaves. It is concluded from the data that the major differences between the chloroplasts of the upper and lower leaf side reflect ionic and thylakoidmembrane conformational factors, rather than structural differences. Mg²⁺ flux probably plays a significant role in the adjustment of the thylakoid membrane to high or low light conditions.     

Photosynthetic activity,chloroplast ultrastructure,and leaf characteristics of high-light and low-light plants and of sun and shade leaves

The photosynthetic CO₂-fixation rates, chlorophyll content, chloroplast ultrastructure and other leaf characteristics (e.g. variable fluorescence, stomata density, soluble carbohydrate content) were studied in a comparative way in sun and shade leaves of beech (Fagus sylvatica) and in high-light and low-light seedlings.

1. Sun leaves of the beech possess a smaller leaf area, higher dry weight, lower water content, higher stomata density, higher chlorophyll a/b ratios and are thicker than the shade leaves. Sun leaves on the average contain more chlorophyll in a leaf area unit; the shade leaf exhibits more chlorophyll on a dry weight basis. Sun leaves show higher rates for dark respiration and a higher light saturation of photosynthetic CO₂-fixation. Above 2000 lux they are more efficient in photosynthetic quantum conversion than the shade leaves.
2. The development of HL-radish plants proceeds much faster than that of LL-plants. The cotyledons of HL-plants show a higher dry weight, lower water content, a higher ratio of chlorophyll a/b and a higher gross photosynthesis rate than the cotyledons of the LL-plants, which possess a higher chlorophyll content per dry weight basis. The large area of the HL-cotyledon on the one hand, as well as the higher stomata density and the higher respiration rate in the LL-cotyledon on the other hand, are not in agreement with the characteristics of sun and shade leaves respectively.
3. The development, growth and wilting of wheat leaves and the appearance of the following leaves (leaf succession) is much faster at high quanta fluence rates than in weak light. The chlorophyll content is higher in the HL-leaf per unit leaf area and in the LL-leaf per g dry weight. There are no differences in the stomata density and leaf area between the HL- and LL-leaf. There are fewer differences between HL- and LL-leaves than in beech or radish leaves.
4. The chloroplast ultrastructure of shade-type chloroplasts (shade leaves, LL-leaves) is not only characterized by a much higher number of thylakoids per granum and a higher stacking degree of thylakoids, but also by broader grana than in sun-type chloroplasts (sun leaves, HL-leaves). The chloroplasts of sun leaves and of HL-leaves exhibit large starch grains.
5. Shade leaves and LL-leaves exhibit a higher maximum chlorophyll fluorescence and it takes more time for the fluorescence to decline to the steady state than in sun and HL-leaves. The variable fluorescence VF (ratio of fluorescence decrease to steady state fluorescence) is always higher in the sun and HL-leaf of the same physiological stage (maximum chlorophyll content of the leaf) than in the shade and LL-leaf. The fluorescence emission spectra of sun and HL-leaves show a higher proportion of chlorophyli fluorescence in the second emission maximum F₂ than shade and LL-leaves.
6. The level of soluble carbohydrates (reducing sugars) is significantly higher in sun and HL-leaves than in shade and LL-leaves and even reflects changes in the amounts of the daily incident light.
7. Some but not all characteristics of mature sun and shade leaves are found in HL- and LL-leaves of seedlings. Leaf thickness, dry weight, chlorophyll content, soluble carbohydrate level, photosynthetic CO₂-fixation, height and width of grana stacks and starch content, are good parameters to describe the differences between LL- and HL-leaves; with some reservations concerning age and physiological stage of leaf, a/b ratios, chlorophyll content per leaf area unit and the variable fluorescence are also suitable.

     

Significance of structural variation in thylakoid membranes in maintaining functional photosystems during reproductive growth

Structural variation in the stroma‐grana (SG) arrangement of the thylakoid membranes, such as changes in the thickness of the grana stacks and in the ratio between grana and inter‐grana thylakoid, is often observed. Broadly, such alterations are considered acclimation to changes in growth and the environment. However, the relation of thylakoid morphology to plant growth and photosynthesis remains obscure. Here, we report changes in the thylakoid during leaf development under a fixed light condition. Histological studies on the chloroplasts of fresh green Arabidopsis leaves have shown that characteristically shaped thylakoid membranes lacking the inter‐grana region, referred to hereafter as isolated‐grana (IG), occurred adjacent to highly ordered, large grana layers. This morphology was restored to conventional SG thylakoid membranes with the removal of bolting stems from reproductive plants. Statistical analysis showed a negative correlation between the incidences of IG‐type chloroplasts in mesophyll cells and the rates of leaf growth. Fluorescence parameters calculated from pulse‐amplitude modulated fluorometry measurements and CO₂ assimilation data showed that the IG thylakoids had a photosynthetic ability that was equivalent to that of the SG thylakoids under moderate light. However, clear differences were observed in the chlorophyll a/b ratio. The IG thylakoids were apparently an acclimated phenotype to the internal condition of source leaves. The idea is supported by the fact that the life span of the IG thylakoids increased significantly in the later developing leaves. In conclusion, the heterogeneous state of thylakoid membranes is likely important in maintaining photosynthesis during the reproductive phase of growth.     

Relationship between chloroplast structure and O2 evolution rate of leaf discs in plants from different biotopes in South Finland

Abstract The chloroplast ultrastructure, especially the thylakoid organization, the polypeptide composition of the thylakoid membranes and photosynthetic O₂ evolution rate, chlorophyll (Chl) content and Chi a/b ratio were studied in leaves of nine plants growing in contrasting biotopes in the wild in South Finland. All the measurements were made at the beginning of the period of main growth on leaves approaching full expansion, when the CO₂-saturated O₂ evolution rate (measured at 20°C and 1500 μmol photons m^?2s^?1) was at a maximum, ranging from 19.2 to 6.9 μmol O₂ cm^?2 h^?1. Among the species, the Chi a/b ratio varied between 3.75 and 2.71. In the mesophyll chloroplasts, the ratio of the total length of appressed to non-appressed thylakoid membranes varied between 1.07 and 1.79, the number of partitions per granum varied between 2.8 and 12.0 and the grana area between 21 and 42% of the chloroplast area. There was a significant relationship between the rate of O₂ evolution of the leaf discs and the thylakoid organization in the mesophyll chloroplasts. The higher the O₂ evolution rate, the lower was the ratio of the total length of appressed to non-appressed thylakoid membranes and also the lower the grana area. Although the relationship of the photosynthetic rate with the Chi content and the Chi a/b ratio of the leaves was not as clear, a significant negative correlation existed between the Chi a/b ratio and the ratio of appressed to non-appressed thylakoid membranes, indicating lateral heterogeneity in the distribution of different Chl- protein complexes.     

Changes in Chlorophyll Content and Organization During Senescence of the Primary Leaves of Phaseolus vulgaris L. in Relation to Photosynthetic Electron Transport

A large decrease was observed in the chlorophyll content ofthe primary leaves of Phaseolus vulgaris during senescence.Chloroplasts isolated from mature and senescent leaves gavevery similar light saturation curves for electron transportreactions involving either PS I or PS II, indicating that theaverage number of chlorophyll molecules associated with eachreaction centre did not change during senescence. It is concludedthat the reaction centres ceased to function at the same timeas, or perhaps before, their antenna chlorophylls were lostfrom the thylakoid membrane, and that the percentage decreasein the number of functional reaction centres per leaf was atleast as great as the percentage decrease in the leaf chlorophyllcontent. The chlorophyll-protein composition of thylakoid membrane preparationswas examined by electrophoresis of samples treated with sodiumdodecyl sulphate. In older leaves a smaller proportion of thechlorophyll applied to polyacrylamide gels was associated withthe P700- chlorophyll a-protein complex. There was also a declinein emission at 734 nm in the 77 °K fluorescence spectrumof intact leaf tissue during senescence. These results indicatethat older leaves contained a smaller proportion of chlorophyllsassociated with PS I, and this is consistent with the decreaseobserved in the leaf chlorophyll a/b ratio during senescence.The effect of these changes in chlorophyll content on the capacityof the chloroplast to carry out photosynthetic electron transportis discussed.     

Measurement of chlorophyll fluorescence within leaves using a fibreoptic microprobe

Abstract. The distribution of chlorophyll fluorescence was measured within leaves of Medicago saliva with a fibre optic microprobe. Leaves were irradiated with broad band blue light (1000 μmol m⁻²s⁻¹) and chlorophyll fluorescence was measured at 688 nm. The amount of fluorescence measured within the leaf depended upon the direction in which the probe was inserted. When the probe was advanced directly through the leaf from the shaded towards the irradiated surface, the maximum amount of detected fluorescence occurred near the boundary between the palisade and spongy mesophyll. When the probe was advanced through the leaf from the opposite direction maximum detected fluorescence was at the boundary between the epidermis and palisade. These results appear to be a consequence of the blue light gradient, which declined exponentially within the palisade but was counterbalanced by increasing chlorophyll content within the leaf. Modelling indicates that the measured distribution of chlorophyll fluorescence can be explained by relatively uniform emission of fluorescence throughout the palisade layer, indicating that the chloroplasts may be photosynthetically specialized to their light environment within the leaf.     

Energization and ultrastructural pattern of thylakoids formed under periodic illumination followed by continuous light

Bean leaves grown under periodic illumination (56 cycles of 2 min light and 98 min darkness) were subsequently exposed to continuous illumination, and in connection with granum formation and accumulation of the light-harvesting pigment-protein complex thermoluminescence and light-induced shrinkage of thylakoid membranes were studied. Juvenile chloroplasts with large double sheets of thylakoids obtained under periodic light exhibited low temperature spectra of polarized fluorescence yielding fluorescence polarization (FP) values < 1 at 695 nm, characteristic for pheophytin emission. In the course of maturation under continuous light when normal grana appeared and the chlorophyll a/b light-harvesting photosystem II complex was incorporated into the membrane, at 695 nm the relative intensity of fluorescence dropped and FP changed to a value of > 1, suggesting an overlap between the emission of pheophytin and that of the chlorophyll a/b light-harvesting photosystem II complex. Thermoluminescence glow curves recorded with juvenile thylakoids displayed a relatively high proportion of emission at low temperatures (around -10°C) while with mature chloroplasts, more thermoluminescence originated from energetically deeper traps (discharged around 28°C). This means that during thylakoid development the capacity of the membrane to stabilize the separated charges increases, which might be favourable for the ultimate conservation of energy. The more extensive energization of mature thylakoids was also indicated by a light-induced decrease in the thickness of the membranes upon illumination; a change which could not be detected in juvenile thylakoids.Abbreviations EDTA ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid - Hepes 4-(2-hydroxy ethyl)-1-piperazine ethane sulfonic acid Dedicated to Prof. L.N.M. Duysens on the occasion of his retirement.     

State 1-state 2 transition in leaves and its association with ATP-induced chlorophyll fluorescence quenching

By using chlorophyll fluorescence, a study has been made of changes in spillover of excitation energy from Photosystem (PS) II to PS I associated with the State 1–State 2 transition in intact pea and barley leaves and in isolated envelope-free chloroplasts treated with ATP. (1) In pea leaves, illumination with light preferentially absorbed by PS II (Light 2) led to a condition of maximum spillover (state 2) while light preferentially absorbed by PS I induced minimum spillover condition (State 1) as judged from the redox state of Q and low-temperature emission spectra. The State 1–State 2 transitions took several minutes to occur, with the time increasing when the temperature was lowered from 19 to 6°C. (2) In contrast to the wild type, leaves of a chlorophyll b-less mutant barley did not exhibit a State 1–State 2 transition, suggesting the involvement of the light-harvesting chlorophyll $\text{a}\text{b-}\text{protein}$ complex in spillover changes in higher plants. (3) Spillover in isolated pea chloroplasts was increased by treatment with ATP either (a) in Light 2 in the absence of an electron acceptor or (b) in the dark in the presence of NADPH and ferredoxin. These observations can be interpreted in terms of the model that a more reduced state of plastoquinone activates the protein kinase which catalyzes phosphorylation of the light-harvesting chlorophyll $\text{a}\text{b-}\text{protein}$ complex (Allen, J.F., Bennett, J., Steinback, K.E. and Arntzen, C.J. (1981). Nature 291, 25–29). This process was found to be very temperature sensitive. (4) Pea chloroplasts illuminated in the presence of ATP seemed to exhibit a slight decrease in the degree of thylakoid stacking, and an increased intermixing of the two photosystems. (5) The possible mechanism by which protein phosphorylation regulates the State 1–State 2 changes in intact leaves is presented in terms of changes in the spatial relationship of two photosystems resulting from alteration in membrane organization.     

DEVELOPMENT OF THE DIMORPHIC CHLOROPLASTS OF SUGAR CANE

The vascular bundle sheath cells of sugar cane contain starch-storing chloroplasts lacking grana, whereas the adjacent mesophyll cells contain chloroplasts which store very little starch and possess abundant grana. This study was undertaken to determine the ontogeny of these dimorphic chloroplasts. Proplastids in the two cell types in the meristematic region of light-grown leaves cannot be distinguished morphologically. Bundle sheath cell chloroplasts in tissue with 50% of its future chlorophyll possess grana consisting of 2-8 thylakoids/granum. Mesophyll cell chloroplasts of the same age have better developed grana and large, well structured prolamellar bodies. A few grana are still present in bundle sheath cell chloroplasts when the leaf tissue has 75% of its eventual chlorophyll, and prolamellar bodies are also found in mesophyll cell chloroplasts at this stage. The two cell layers in mature dark-grown leaves contain morphologically distinct etio-plasts. The response of these two plastids to light treatment also differs. Plastids in tissue treated with light for short periods exhibit protrusions resembling mitochondria. Plastids in bundle sheath cells of dark-grown leaves do not go through a grana-forming stage. It is concluded that the structure of the specialized chloroplasts in bundle sheath cells of sugar cane is a result of reduction, and that the development of chloroplast dimorphism is related in some way to leaf cell differentiation.     

Light-dependent reversal of dark-chilling induced changes in chloroplast structure and arrangement of chlorophyll-protein complexes in bean thylakoid membranes

Changes in chloroplast structure and rearrangement of chlorophyll-protein (CP) complexes were investigated in detached leaves of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. cv. Eureka), a chilling-sensitive plant, during 5-day dark-chilling at 1 degrees C and subsequent 3-h photoactivation under white light (200 mumol photons m(-2) s(-1)) at 22 degrees C. Although, no change in chlorophyll (Chl) content and Chl a/b ratio in all samples was observed, overall fluorescence intensity of fluorescence emission and excitation spectra of thylakoid membranes isolated from dark-chilled leaves decreased to about 50%, and remained after photoactivation at 70% of that of the control sample. Concomitantly, the ratio between fluorescence intensities of PSI and PSII (F736/F681) at 120 K increased 1.5-fold upon chilling, and was fully reversed after photoactivation. Moreover, chilling stress seems to induce a decrease of the relative contribution of LHCII fluorescence to the thylakoid emission spectra at 120 K, and an increase of that from LHCI and PSI, correlated with a decrease of stability of LHCI-PSI and LHCII trimers, shown by mild-denaturing electrophoresis. These effects were reversed to a large extent after photoactivation, with the exception of LHCII, which remained partly in the aggregated form. In view of these data, it is likely that dark-chilling stress induces partial disassembly of CP complexes, not completely restorable upon photoactivation. These data are further supported by confocal laser scanning fluorescence microscopy, which showed that regular grana arrangement observed in chloroplasts isolated from control leaves was destroyed by dark-chilling stress, and was partially reconstructed after photoactivation. In line with this, Chl a fluorescence spectra of leaf discs demonstrated that dark-chilling caused a decrease of the quantum yield PSII photochemistry (F(v)/F(m)) by almost 40% in 5 days. Complete restoration of the photochemical activity of PSII required 9 h post-chilling photoactivation, while only 3 h were needed to reconstruct thylakoid membrane organization and chloroplast structure. The latter demonstrated that the long-term dark-chilled bean leaves started to suffer from photoinhibition after transfer to moderate irradiance and temperature conditions, delaying the recovery of PSII photochemistry, independently of photo-induced reconstruction of PSII complexes.     

Over-expression of a pepper plastid lipid-associated protein in tobacco leads to changes in plastid ultrastructure and plant development upon stress

Proteins homologous to fibrillin, a pepper plastid lipid-associated protein involved in carotenoid storage in fruit chromoplasts, have been recently identified in leaf chloroplasts from several species and shown to be induced upon environmental stress. To further investigate the role of the protein, transgenic Nicotiana tabacum plants over-expressing fibrillin using a constitutive promoter were generated. Transgenics grown under standard light intensities (300 micromol photons m-2 sec-1) were found to contain substantial amounts of fibrillin in flowers and leaves. In leaves, the protein was immunolocalized within chloroplasts in both stromal and thylakoid subfractions. No change was noticed in thylakoid structures from transgenics, but chloroplasts contained an increased number of plastoglobules organized in clusters. In petals, leucoplasts were also found to contain more agglutinated plastoglobules. The effects of environmental factors on fibrillin gene expression and protein localization were studied in tobacco leaves. Less fibrillin was present in plants grown under low light intensities, which can be explained by the involvement of a light-dependent splicing step in the control of fibrillin gene expression in leaves. Analysis of protein subfractions from plants subjected to drought or high light showed that both stresses resulted in fibrillin association with thylakoids. Whereas no growth difference between wild-type (WT) and transgenic plants was noticed under low light conditions, transgenics exhibit a longer main stem, enhanced development of lateral stems and accelerated floral development under higher light intensities. These data suggest that fibrillin-related proteins fulfil an important function in plant development in relation to environmental constraints.     

不同光照强度对西洋参光合特性,营养成分和产量的影响

在２１．６％自然光强下生长的西洋参叶片,光合作用的光饱和点和光补偿点皆比１１％自然光强下的高．在恒定条件下,光合作用最适温度为２８℃．２１．６％自然光强下的光合产物,较多地分配到根部,１１％自然光强下则分配到果实中的高．光合速率在一定范围内随透光强度的增加而提高,以透光３０％的叶片为最高．其日变化呈双峰曲线．叶绿素含量在一定范围内随光强的增加而降低,叶绿素ｂ含量的变化亦为同样趋势．叶片结构以弱光和强光相比,在上表皮角质层花纹、下表皮气孔数、叶肉细胞形状、叶绿体数及其基粒片层结构都有明显差别．参的产量随光强的增加而显著增加,但以透光３０％时增长幅度最大,４０％时增长变小．根中总皂苷和氨基酸含量在一定范围内随光强而增加,至透光４０％时又下降．