Purification and Characterization of an Extracellular Cold-Active Serine Protease from the Psychrophilic Bacterium <Emphasis Type="Italic">Colwellia</Emphasis> sp. NJ341

Colwellia sp. NJ341, isolated from Antarctic sea ice, secreted a cold-active serine protease. The purified protease had an apparent Mr of 60 kDa by SDS-PAGE and MALDI-TOF MS. It was active from pH 5–12 with maximum activity at 35 °C (assayed over 10 min). Activity at 0 °C was nearly 30% of the maximum activity. It was completely inhibited by phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride.     

Alkaline protease from a new obligate alkalophilic isolate of Bacillus sphaericus

An obligate alkalophilic Bacillus sphaericus strain, isolated from alkaline soils in the Himalaya, produced an extracellular protease which was optimally active at 50–55 °C and pH 10.5. The enzyme was stable in presence of 500 mg chlorine l^–1 and as a detergent additive. Its stability in presence of laundry detergents was comparable to that of commercial proteases. The gelatin layer in 25 g of used X-ray films was efficiently hydrolyzed within 12 min at 50 °C, pH 11.0 and 25 U protease/ml.     

Extracellular proteases from eight psychrotolerant Antarctic strains

Extracellular proteases from 8 Antarctic psychrotolerant Pseudomonas sp. strains were purified and characterised. All of them are neutral metalloproteases, have an apparent molecular mass of 45kDa, optimal activity at 40 degrees C and pH 7-9, retaining significant activity at pH 5-11. With the exception of P96-18, which is less stable, all retain more than 50% activity after 3 h of incubation at pH 5-9 and show low thermal stability (their half-life times range from 20 to 60 min at 40 degrees C and less than 5 min at 50 degrees C). These proteases can be used in commercial processes carried out at neutral pH and moderate temperatures, and are of special interest for their application in mixtures of enzymes where final thermal selective inactivation is needed. Results also highlight the relevance of Antarctic biotopes for the isolation of protease-producing enzymes active at low temperatures.     

Protease production by a thermophilic Bacillus species (P-001A) which degrades various kinds of fibrous proteins

An aerobic Gram-positive sporeforming bacterium was isolated from an alkaline hot spring at Wondo Genet, Ethiopia. In an optimized culture medium it produced maximum activity of protease at 55°C and pH 9.5. The protease activity against casein was 65 units/ml. Enzyme activity was detected between 30–70°C and pH of 4.5–11.5. The enzyme had a half-life of 55 and 30 min at 60° and 70°C, respectively. The isolate hydrolysed 90, 60 and 50% of the skin, feather and horn used in the optimized medium within 120 h.     

Characterization of proteases produced by newly isolated and identified proteolytic microorganisms from fermented fish (Budu)

Eight different strains ofBacillus were isolated from fermented fish (Budu) and their proteolytic enzyme activities were determined after 18 h cultivation at room temperature (35° C). Four isolates possessed high protease activities. Optimum pH for these enzymes was between 7.0 and 8.0 and the optimal temperature was 55° C. The proteases retained 40% of their original activity after 20 min at 55° C but lost all activity at 65° C. Three of the four isolates were identified asBacillus subtilis, the fourth asBacillus licheniformis.     

Production of neutral and alkaline extracellular proteases by the thermophilic fungus, Scytalidium thermophilum, grown on microcrystalline cellulose

Extracellular proteases produced by Scytalidium thermophilum, grown on microcrystalline cellulose, were most active at pH 6.5–8 and 37–45 °C when incubated for 60 min. Highest protease activity was at day 3 where endoglucanase activity was low. Protease activity measurements with and without the protease inhibitors, p-chloromercuribenzoate, PMSF, antipain, E-64, EDTA and pepstatin A, suggest production of thiol-containing serine protease and serine proteases. Endoglucanase and Avicel-adsorbable endoglucanase activity in culture medium was not significantly affected by protease inhibitors.     

Relation of protease production to nematode-degrading ability of two Arthrobotrys spp.

A comparison of the nematode-destroying capability of two nematophagous Arthrobotrys spp. (coded ART-1 and ART-2), isolated from soil samples, showed that ART-1 (LD50=290conidia/ml) was more efficient than ART-2 (LD50=725conidia/ml). The two isolates produce extracellular proteases in liquid culture. The proteases from both isolates had a temperature optimum of 50°C. The optimum pH for protease activity was in the range of 7.5–8 for ART-1 and 7.5–9 for ART-2. ART-1 produced more protease activity (13.3±0.72U/ml) than ART-2 (10.9±0.375U/ml). The proteases from ART-1 were more efficient in degrading nematodes than those of ART-2 by virtue of being produced in a larger quantity. We suggest that the difference in the nematode-destroying capability between the two strains is solely the result of the difference in the amount of extracellular proteases they produce.     

Partial characterization ofAspergillus fumigatus polygalacturonases for the degumming of natural fibers

Summary Aspergillus fumigatus strain 4, cultured on citrus pectin as the sole carbon source, produced polygalacturonases whose activity was optimum at 65°C and pH 3.5–4.5. The enzymes presented a bimodal thermostability for 10 min, but not 60 min, of incubation. Polygalacturonases showed pH stability between 3.0 to 9.0. The enzymes were stable when stored at 4–6°C for 90 days, but their activity was reduced by 24% when they were stored at 26–30°C. Orange pulp was the best pectic carbon source tested for the production of pectinases capable of retting ramie fibers. The reutilization of these enzymes was possible, suggesting the viability of industrial use of pectinases for degumming ramie fibers.     

Novel alkaline- and heat-stable serine proteases from alkalophilic Bacillus sp. strain GX6638.

An alkalophilic Bacillus sp., strain GX6638 (ATCC 53278), was isolated from soil and shown to produce a minimum of three alkaline proteases. The proteases were purified by ion-exchange chromatography and were distinguishable by their isoelectric point, molecular weight, and electrophoretic mobility. Two of the proteases, AS and HS, which exhibited the greatest alkaline and thermal stability, were characterized further. Protease HS had an apparent molecular weight of 36,000 and an isoelectric point of approximately 4.2, whereas protease AS had a molecular weight of 27,500 and an isoelectric point of 5.2. Both enzymes had optimal proteolytic activities over a broad pH range (pH 8 to 12) and exhibited temperature optima of 65 degrees C. Proteases HS and AS were further distinguished by their proteolytic activities, esterolytic activities, sensitivity to inhibitors, and their alkaline and thermal stability properties. Protease AS was extremely alkali stable, retaining 88% of initial activity at pH 12 over a 24-h incubation period at 25 degrees C; protease HS exhibited similar alkaline stability properties to pH 11. In addition, protease HS had exceptional thermal stability properties. At pH 9.5 (0.1 M CAPS buffer, 5 mM EDTA), the enzyme had a half-life of more than 200 min at 50 degrees C and 25 min at 60 degrees C. At pH above 9.5, protease HS readily lost enzymatic activity even in the presence of exogenously supplied Ca2+. In contrast, protease AS was more stable at pH above 9.5, and Ca2+ addition extended the half-life of the enzyme 10-fold at 60 degrees C. In contrast, protease AS was more stable at pH above 9.5, and Ca2+ addition extended the half-life of the enzyme 10-fold at 60 degrees C. The data presented here clearly indicate that these two alkaline proteases from Bacillus sp. strain GX6638 represent novel proteases that differ fundamentally from the proteases previously described for members of the genus Bacillus.     

Purification and characterization of a neutral serine protease from non-sulfur purple photosynthetic bacterium

A neutral serine protease was purified as a homogeneous protein from the culture broth of photosynthetic bacterium T-20 by sequential chromatographies on columns of DEAE-cellulose, Toyopearl HW 55F, hydroxyapatite, and CM-cellulose. The molecular weight was estimated to be approximately 44,000 by SDS-PAGE, while the value of approximately 80,000 was obtained when the Hedrick-Smith method was used; this suggested that the enzyme consists of two identical subunits. The isoelectric point was determined to be 6.3 by isoelectric focusing. The enzyme had a pH optimum at 7.8. Maximal enzyme activity was detected at 50°C, and the activity was stable up to 50°C for 5 min at pH 7.0–7.2. The substrate specificity of the protease was investigated with a series of synthetic peptidyl-p-nitroanilide. The best substrate examined was Suc-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe-pNA. The protease activity was inhibited by various inhibitors of serine protease such as chymostatin, PMSF, and DFP. EDTA, which is an inhibitor of metal protease, also inhibited the protease activity, whereas inhibitors of thiol and aspartic proteases had no significant effect.     

Purification and characterization of two thermostable proteases from the thermophilic fungus Chaetomium thermophilum

Thermostable protease is very effective to improve the industrial processes in many fields. Two thermostable extracellular proteases from the culture supernatant of the thermophilic fungus Chaetomium thermophilum were purified to homogeneity by fractional ammonium sulfate precipitation, ion-exchange chromatography on DEAE-Sepharose, and PhenylSepharose hydrophobic interaction chromatography. By SDS-PAGE, the molecular mass of the two purified enzymes was estimated to be 33 kDa and 63 kDa, respectively. The two proteases were found to be inhibited by PMSF, but not by iodoacetamide and EDTA. The 33 kDa protease (PRO33) exhibited maximal activity at pH 10.0 and the 63 kDa protease (PRO63) at pH 5.0. The optimum temperature for the two proteases was 65 degrees C. The PRO33 had a K(m) value of 6.6 mM and a V(max) value of 10.31 micromol/l/min, and PRO63 17.6 mM and 9.08 micromol/l/min, with casein as substrate. They were thermostable at 60 degrees C. The protease activity of PRO33 and PRO63 remained at 67.2% and 17.31%, respectively, after incubation at 70 degrees C for 1 h. The thermal stability of the two enzymes was significantly enhanced by Ca2+. The residual activity of PRO33 and PRO63 at 70 degrees C after 60 min was approximately 88.59% and 39.2%, respectively, when kept in the buffer containing Ca2+. These properties make them applicable for many biotechnological purposes.     

A novel alkaline, thermostable, protease-free lipase from Pseudomonas sp.

An extracellular, alkali-tolerant, thermostable lipase was from a Pseudomonas sp. It had optimal activity at 65 °C and retained 75% of its activity at 65 °C for 90 min. The pH optimum was 9.6 and it retained more than 70% activity between pH 5 and 9 for 2 h. The culture broth was free of protease and, at 30 °C, the culture filtrate retained all the activity for at least 7 days, without any stabilizer. In shake flask culture, addition of groundnut oil (3 g l^–1) towards the end of growth phase increased the activity from 4 U ml^–1 to 8 ml^–1.     

Activated charcoal: a versatile decolorization agent for the recovery and purification of alkaline protease

The use of activated charcoal for enzyme recovery and purification was investigated and the optimum activated charcoal concentration and the minimum contact time needed for efficient decolorization of an alkaline protease preparation in terms of surface adsorption and retention of enzyme activity were found to be 7.5 g l^–1 and 30 min, respectively. Elevated temperatures had a greater influence on the rate of decolorization which was faster when the protease was refluxed at 60 °C for 10–15 min. These data suggest that the efficient adsorption characteristics of activated charcoal can be exploited for cost-effective downstream processing of alkaline proteases and possibly other enzymes.     

Oligosaccharides extracted from cell walls of Kluyveromyces marxianus grown on whey

After whey fermentation by Kluyveromyces marxianus var. marxianus (30°C, pH 4.5, 24 h) and autolysis of the cells (50°C, pH 6.5, 12 h), the subsequent extracts were centrifuged (10,000 × g, 4°C, 15 min), and the cell walls were separated from the autolysates. Cell walls were then treated with: (i) 0.75M NaOH (75°C, 20 h) ; or (ii) lytic enzymes, 0.0025–5.0% (w/v), in 5 mM phosphate buffer (pH 6.5–7.0) (40°C, 24 h). The lytic enzymes were denaturated (80°C, 15 min), and the alkali solutions were neutralized with 0.5M acetic acid, before centrifugation. The supernatants were concentrated by a Speed-Vac concentrator, and analyzed by HPLC, equipped with a TSK-Amide 80 column (1.0 ml/ min of water/acetonitrile, 35/65 ratio, 60°C, 40 min). Tetrasaccharides were detected. Gels were formed when cell walls were treated with NaOH. © Rapid Science Ltd. 1998     

A new subtilisin family: nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences of new high-molecular-mass alkaline proteases from<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Bacillus</Emphasis> spp.

Six genes encoding high-molecular-mass subtilisins (HMSs) of alkaliphilic Bacillus spp. were cloned and sequenced. Their open reading frames of 2,394–2,424 bp encoded prosubtilisins of 798–808 amino acids (aa) consisting of the prepropeptides of 151–158 aa and the mature enzymes of 640–656 aa. The deduced aa sequences of the mature enzymes exhibited 60–95% identity to those of FT protease of Bacillus sp. strain KSM-KP43, a subtilisin-like serine protease, and a minor serine protease, Vpr, of Bacillus strains. Three of the six recombinant enzymes were susceptible to proteolysis, but the others were autodigestion resistant. All enzymes had optimal pH values of 10.5–11.0, optimal temperatures of 40–45°C for hydrolysis of a synthetic substrate, and were heat labile. These alkaline proteases seem to form a new subtilisin family, as judged by their aa sequences and phylogenetic analysis.Communicated by K. Horikoshi     

Compatibility of alkaline xylanases from an alkaliphilic<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Bacillus</Emphasis> NCL (87-6-10) with commercial detergents and proteases

Alkaline xylanases from alkaliphilic Bacillus strains NCL (87-6-10) and Sam III were compared with the commercial xylanases Pulpzyme HC and Biopulp for their compatibility with detergents and proteases for laundry applications. Among the four xylanases evaluated, the enzyme from the alkaliphilic Bacillus strain NCL (87-6-10) was the most compatible. The enzyme retained its full activity (40 °C for 1 h) in the presence of detergents, whereas Pulpzyme HC and Sam III showed only 30% and 50% of their initial activity, respectively. Biopulp, though stable to detergents, had only marginal activity (5%)at pH 10. However, all four enzymes retained significant activity (80%) for 60 min in the presence of the proteases Alcalase and Conidiobolus protease. Supplementation of the enzyme enhanced the cleaning ability of the detergents.     

Separation and partial purification of extracellular amylase and protease from Bacillus caldolyticus

Summary The extracellular amylase and protease from Bacillus caldolyticus can be concentrated by ammonium sulfate precipitation after growth on either solid or in liquid media containing starch, glucose, and brain-heart infusion. Using the Diaflo ultrafiltration system with membranes of various permeability, the enzymes could be separated from each other by extensive flushing with buffer. Best results were obtained with the 50–70% ammonium sulfate fraction as starting material, yielding 72% of the total amylase activity in the low molecular weight fraction (UM-10 fraction: 10000–30000), while 54 and 25% respectively of the protease were retained in the two high molecular weight fractions (50000–100000, and more than 100000). Similar results were obtained with the 20–50% ammonium sulfate fraction, while the fraction of 0–20% saturation contained a low molecular weight protease. The native amylase seems to consist of a number of sub-units, which after extensive flushing accumulate in the fraction with an approximate molecular weight between 10000 and 30000. The enzyme could also be precipitated from cell-free liquid media with ammonium sulfate, followed by separation and purification on ultra-filtration cells. According to the specific activity of the UM-10 fractions a 400-fold purification was obtained compared to the amylase activity of the cell-free medium.Direct concentration and separation from liquid media, omitting ammonium sulfate treatment, was also found to be possible, although prolonged flushing with buffer was necessary to obtain satisfactory separation.During purification from the ammonium sulfate fractions, amylase activity was found to decrease but could be restored by Ca-ions. At 70°C, a final concentration of 0.5 mM CaCl₂, was sufficient for full restoration, while three times that amount was necessary at 80°C. Determination of the K _m-values for Ca at different temperatures resulted in an asymptotically increasing curve at temperatures beyond 75°C. Addition of Ca had a pronounced effect on the stability of the amylase at 80°C but not at 90°C. Protease activity and stability was not affected by Ca-ions.     

Production of a thermostable extracellular lipase by Kluyveromyces marxianus

Kluyveromyces marxianus was grown in submerged culture in a complex medium with several potential inducers of lipolytic activity (triacylglycerols, fatty acids). The highest extracellular lipolytic enzyme production (about 80 U ml^–1 in 3 d) was obtained when the medium was supplemented with 2 g urea l^–1 plus 5 g tributyrin l^–1. Addition of surfactants (1 g l^–1) did not improve production. The lipase had a high thermal stability in aqueous solution (73% residual activity after 9 d at 50 °C, 16 min half-life time at 100 °C). It was also stable at acidic pH and showed good tolerance to organic solvents (70% residual activity after 2 d in n-hexane of cyclohexane).     

Enhanced production and characterization of a highly thermostable alkaline protease from Bacillus sp. P-2

An obligatory alkalophilic Bacillus sp. P-2, which produced a thermostable alkaline protease was isolated by selective screening from water samples. Protease production at 30 °C in static conditions was highest (66 U/ml) when glucose (1% w/v) was used with combination of yeast extract and peptone (0.25% w/v, each), in the basal medium. Protease production by Bacillus sp. P-2 was suppressed up to 90% when inorganic nitrogen sources were supplemented in the production medium. Among the various agro-byproducts used in different growth systems (solid state, submerged fermentation and biphasic system), wheat bran was found to be the best in terms of maximum enhancement of protease yield as compared to rice bran and sunflower seed cake. The protease was optimally active at pH 9.6, retaining more than 80% of its activity in the pH range of 7–10. The optimum temperature for maximum protease activity was 90 °C. The enzyme was stable at 90 °C for more than 1h and retained 95 and 37% of its activity at 99 °C and 121 °C, respectively, after 1 h. The half-life of protease at 121 °C was 47 min.     

Biochemical properties of a serine protease from Aspergillus flavus and application in dehairing

The proteases are enzymes produced by several filamentous fungi with important biotechnological applications. In this work, a protease from Aspergillus flavus was characterized. The culture filtrate of A. flavus was purified to homogeneity by Sephacryl S-200 column chromatography followed by CM–cellulose. The molecular weight of the purified enzyme was estimated to be approximately 32?kDa by SDS–PAGE. The enzyme hydrolysed BTpNA (N-α-benzoyl-dl-tyrosyl-p-nitroanilide), azo-casein and casein as substrates. Optimal temperature and pH were 55?°C and 6.5, respectively. The enzyme was stimulated by Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Zn²⁺ and inhibited by Hg²⁺ and Ag²⁺ and Cu²⁺. The protease showed increased activity with detergents, such as Tween 80 and Triton X, and was stable to the reducing agents, such as β-mercaptoethanol. The protease activity was strongly inhibited in the presence of phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, indicating it is a serine protease. The enzyme entrapped in calcium alginate beads retained its activity for longer time and could be reused up to 10 times. The thermostability was increased after the immobilization and the enzyme retained 100% of activity at 45?°C after 60?min of incubation, and 90% of residual activity at 50?°C after 30?min. In contrast, the free enzyme only retained 10% of its residual activity after 60?min at 50?°C. The enzymatic preparation was demonstrated to be efficient in the capability of dehairing without destruction of the hide. The remarkable properties such as temperature, pH and immobilization stability found with this enzyme assure that it could be a potential candidate for industrial applications.