HAP蛋白疏水区的聚合功能及其与细胞凋亡的关系

asy和hap是一对新的细胞凋亡诱发基因 .二者单独转染细胞均能诱发细胞凋亡 ,能在酵母和哺乳动物细胞中形成同源二聚体 ,二者共转染酵母和哺乳动物细胞能形成异源二聚体 .同源二聚体诱发细胞凋亡 ,异源二聚体降低同源二聚体诱发细胞凋亡的活性 .氨基酸序列表明 ,HAP(homologousofASYprotein)含有内质网挽回模体 (KKKAE)、第一疏水区和第二疏水区 .对 3个功能区的缺失突变体研究显示 ,缺失内质网定位信号的HAPΔERS蛋白保留着同源聚合和与ASY异源聚合的能力 ,而分别缺失第一、第二疏水区的突变体HAPΔ4 8 139、HAPΔ15 7 2 18则丧失以上功能 ;通过流式计数法计算 3个缺失突变体诱发细胞凋亡比率 ,用生物统计学方法说明不同的比率与HAP诱发细胞凋亡的比率相比都有显著差异 .说明内质网定位信号、疏水区在HAP蛋白的诱发细胞凋亡过程中起重要作用 ,进一步揭示了HAP诱发细胞凋亡的机制 .     

人分泌型磷脂酶A2 GIIE的E54突变及其对底物选择性的影响

人分泌型磷脂酶A2 GIIE (Human secreted phospholipase A2 GIIE,hGIIE) 通过发挥酶催化作用,参与炎症反应和脂代谢过程。为了揭示hGIIE的底物选择机制,文中对hGIIE进行了定点突变,采用毕赤酵母Pichia pastoris重组表达突变体蛋白,然后通过阳离子交换和分子排阻两步法纯化蛋白,最后用等温微量热滴定仪测定酶活性。hGIIE的结构分析显示,氨基酸E54可能与GIIE的底物头基选择性有关,经过同源序列比对,拟将E54突变为丙氨酸 (A)、苯丙氨酸 (F) 和赖氨酸 (K)。突变体E54A、E54F和E54K在毕赤酵母组成型表达系统中实现重组表达,通过两步纯化,纯度达到90%以上。酶活性实验显示,突变体与底物1,2-二己酰卵磷脂 (1,2-dihexanoyl-sn- glycero-3-phosphocholine,DHPC) 和1,2-二己酰磷酸甘油 (1,2-dihexyl phosphate glycerol,DHPG) 的亲和力发生改变,其中突变体E54K与DHPG的Km值为突变前的0.39倍,亲和力明显增强;突变体E54F与DHPC的Km值为突变前的1.93倍,亲和力明显减弱。hGIIE的E54突变体蛋白与磷脂底物的亲和力发生明显改变,说明E54在hGIIE的磷脂底物选择性水解过程中起重要作用。     

MUC1及其C端活性片段突变体具有抑制肿瘤的活性

MUC1蛋白翻译后成为一条多肽链,它很快在内质网被切割成2个亚基,形成稳定的异源二聚体.Cys-Gln-Cys(CQC)3个氨基酸位于MUC1C端亚基跨膜结构域与胞内结构域的连接处.研究发现,MUC1C端的CQCRRK结构域突变成AQARRK或使其缺失,突变体的致瘤性明显降低.表明:通过突变CQC→AQA来阻碍与C端亚基相关的二聚体化,可能成为肿瘤治疗的新途径.     

重组肉毒神经毒素A轻链(BoNT/A LC)突变体的构建、表达与活性分析

A型肉毒神经毒素的轻链(BoNT/A LC)是一种锌依赖性的金属内肽酶.通过X射线分析其结构并结合一些文献报道表明,轻链上的Arg362和Tyr365直接参与了酶的催化作用,而Glu350则处于其活性位点的中心位置.采用定点突变技术,对编码这3个关键性的氨基酸位点的碱基进行突变(Arg362Ala、Tyr365Phe、Glu350Ala),获得了BoNT/A LC突变体.突变体蛋白与BoNT/A的底物蛋白SNAP-25进行切割反应,结果表明,未经突变的BoNT/A轻链蛋白能够特异性地识别SNAP-25蛋白上的Q197-R198位点,而突变体蛋白则完全无法识别该位点,不具有金属内肽酶活性,成功地去除了肉毒神经毒素的毒力,为下一步的全长肉毒神经毒素重组疫苗的研究打下了基础.     

短链壬基酚聚氧乙烯醚脱氢酶脱氢催化机理

【目的】为研究短链壬基酚聚氧乙烯醚脱氢酶(sNPEO-DH)的脱氢氧化机制(基因克隆于Ensifer sp.AS08),我们进行了以下实验。【方法】采用同源序列比对及同源建模的方法筛选出与其辅酶黄素腺嘌呤二核苷酸(FAD)异咯嗪基邻近的4个氨基酸残基。以定点突变方法分别构建了突变体,并进行了重组蛋白的表达纯化和酶活力测定。【结果】野生型和突变体的酶学动力学实验表明,突变体N90A和N509A对亲水性底物聚乙二醇(PEG1000)的相对活性分别降低为51%和89%,对疏水性底物sNPEO的活性分别降低为26%和40%,说明氨基酸残基N90和N509可能与底物的结合相关。突变体H465A的相对活性丧失了90%以上,突变体N507A完全丧失活性;瞬时"停-流"检测实验进一步证明N507A突变体阻断了底物向FAD传递质子的过程,突变体H465A阻断了对FAD还原形成的FADH2脱氢再生的过程。【结论】以上结果说明N507和H465为sNPEO脱氢酶活性中心中参与对底物氧化脱氢及FADH2脱氢再生进行下一次反应的催化位点。     

人副流感病毒3型HN蛋白十一肽重复序列保守氨基酸突变分析

为确定人副流感病毒3型(Human parainfluenza virus type 3,hPIV3)病毒包膜表面血凝素神经氨酸酶(Hemagglutinin-neuraminidase,HN)糖蛋白茎部区十一肽重复序列中保守氨基酸中具有关键性作用的位点,进一步探讨HN蛋白茎部区在融合机制中的重要作用。结合定点突变和同源重组技术将HN蛋白茎部区十一肽重复序列中5个保守氨基酸位点(I102、P111、L114、S119、I125)突变为丙氨酸(Alanine,A),通过痘苗病毒-T7聚合酶系统在BHK-21细胞中表达突变蛋白,定性定量检测各突变体蛋白的促细胞融合活性、受体结合活性、神经氨酸酶活性和半融合活性。突变体蛋白I102A、P111A、L114A、S119A、I125A的促细胞融合活性均有不同程度下降,依次为野生型的6%、16%、14%、87%和4%,除S119A外其余4个突变型与野生型相比差别均具有统计学意义(P0.01);突变体蛋白I102A、P111A、L114A、S119A、I125A的受体结合活性也出现不同程度下降,依次分别为野生型的32.2%、77.4%、74.2%、83.9%和38.7%,其中I102A和I125A的受体结合活性与野生型相比差别具有统计学意义(P0.01);突变体蛋白I102A、P111A、L114A、S119A、I125A的神经氨酸酶活性分别为野生型的66.5%、73.1%、69.1%、76.1%和72.8%,与野生型相比差别无统计学意义(P0.05)。结果表明:茎部区十一肽重复序列对hPIV3HN蛋白的促细胞融合活性和受体结合活性具有重要意义。该区域氨基酸I102、P111、L114、I125具有关键作用,推测其能通过影响头部区受体结合活性或是与融合蛋白的相互作用等不同方式导致HN蛋白结构功能发生改变。     

汉滩病毒S基因的分段表达及其线性和构象型抗原表位分析

构建汉滩病毒76—118N蛋白及其分别从N-端和C-端缺失的共6个突变体,在大肠杆菌BL-21中进行表达,并对其中一些蛋白进行了纯化。通过Western blot、酶联免疫吸附试验(ELISA)进行汉滩病毒N蛋白的抗原表位分析,N蛋白及6个缺失突变体都与组特异性抗体L13F3呈阳性反应,而缺失突变体与型特异性抗体AH30呈阴性反应。构建汉滩病毒76—118N蛋白及其6个缺失突变体的真核表达载体,并在COS-7细胞中进行表达。通过间接免疫荧光试验(IFA)进行汉滩病毒N蛋白的抗原表位分析,病人血清与真核表达的N蛋白及6个缺失突变体呈阳性反应。而仅有N蛋白及缺失N端1～30位氨基酸序列的NPN30与型特异性抗体AH30呈阳性反应。证实组特异性抗体L13F3结合的抗原表位位于N端1～30位氨基酸;而C端抗原表位对于型特异性抗体AH30与N蛋白的识别和结合具有重要意义,缺失N端100位氨基酸序列可能破坏羧基端构象型表位,也可以影响N蛋白与AH30的结合。     

伪狂犬病毒VP22蛋白C-端系列缺失突变体的构建及亚细胞定位分析

以绿荧光蛋白(GFP)为标记,构建了一系列伪狂犬病毒VP22蛋白的C-端缺失突变体与GFP融合表达的真核表达质粒,脂质体介导转染Hela细胞,通过荧光显微镜观察分析各个缺失突变体的亚细胞定位,发现伪狂犬病毒VP22蛋白与核定位有关的结构域在第60个到第90个氨基酸残基之间,第111个到第159个氨基酸残基有可能与形成细胞核内的颗粒有关,与微管蛋白结合有关的结构域可能在第187到第241个氨基酸残基之间.上述研究结果为进一步深入研究伪狂犬病毒VP22蛋白的结构与功能奠定了基础.     

用酵母双杂交系统研究胰岛素样生长因子-1突变体与其结合蛋白-3的相互作用

为研究胰岛素样生长因子 1(IGF1)及其突变体与IGF结合蛋白 3(IGFBP3)的相互作用 ,针对IGF1的第 3、4、15、16位氨基酸残基 ,采用定点突变的方法构建了 [Y15L16 ]IGF1和 [Q3A4Y15L16 ]IGF1。然后分别将IGF1/IGF1突变体和IGFBP3cDNA克隆至酵母表达载体pGBT9和pACT2中 ,利用酵母双杂交技术检测IGF1/IGF1突变体和IGFBP3之间的相互作用。结果表明用酵母双杂交系统检测IGF1与其结合蛋白的结合力是可行的 ,构建的这两个IGF1突变体与IGFBP3的结合力 ,与天然IGF1相比 ,结合力大大减小     

稻瘟菌CYP51蛋白F螺旋区保守氨基酸残基与

【目的】研究稻瘟菌CYP51蛋白F螺旋区保守氨基酸残基与烯唑醇的相互作用机制,为稻瘟病菌新型高效特异杀菌剂的开发提供理论依据。【方法】设计稻瘟菌CYP51蛋白F螺旋区保守氨基酸残基突变体P222C、P222H、I223A、I223W、N224A、N224S,截去N端跨膜区36个氨基酸后,在大肠杆菌BL21(DE3) Rosetta菌株中过量表达,采用结合光谱法分析诱导蛋白对烯唑醇的结合能力。【结果】表达的目标蛋白均保持了对药物的结合能力,呈现出II型的结合光谱曲线。相对于野生型蛋白,突变体I223W和I223A对烯唑醇的结合常数Kd值基本不变,N224S、N224A、P222C的Kd值都略有增大,无显著性差异(P>0.05),但是,P222H的Kd值有了显著的增大(P<0.05),表明突变体P222H对烯唑醇的亲和能力显著降低。【结论】稻瘟菌CYP51 P222位点的疏水性与药物结合密切相关。     

Systematic site-directed mutagenesis of human protein SRP54: interactions with signal recognition particle RNA and modes of signal peptide recognition

The amino acid residues of human protein SRP54 which are required for binding to SRP RNA were identified by generating 40 nonoverlapping tri-alanine alterations within its methionine-rich M-domain (SRP54M). The mutant polypeptides were expressed in Escherichia coli, and their ability to bind to human and Methanococcus jannaschii SRP RNA were determined in vitro. Residues at positions 379-387, 394-396, 400-405, and 409-411 of human SRP54 were within the predicted RNA binding site, and their alteration abolished the binding activities of the mutant polypeptides as expected. Changes at positions 418-423 had intermediate effects. Polypeptides containing mutations of 328-TLR-330 were inactive although these residues were far away from the presumed RNA binding site in the crystal structure of the free protein. Using the structures of the E. coli Ffh/4.5S core and of the human SRP54m dimer as templates, a molecular model of the complex between human SRP RNA helix 8 and a single SRP54M molecule was constructed in which Leucine 329 was positioned in closer proximity to the RNA binding domain. This representation was supported by studies of the SRP54m monomer/dimer ratio using gel filtration. The results were consistent with a change in the shape of the signal peptide binding groove upon binding of SRP54 to SRP RNA. We propose that the SRP RNA and a small region centered at a bulky nonpolar amino acid residue at position 329 of protein SRP54 play a critical role in the SRP-dependent binding and release of signal peptides.     

A basic region neighboring the lysine-rich C-terminus of protein SRP19 is required for binding to signal recognition particle RNA.

To identify some of the determinants in the 19-kilodalton protein of signal recognition particle (SRP19) for binding to signal recognition particle RNA, two mutant derivatives of the SRP19 were constructed, lacking 14 and 24 C-terminal amino acids. Polypeptides were transcribed and translated in vitro and tested for their ability to bind to signal recognition particle RNA by retention of protein-RNA complexes on DEAE-Sepharose. Both mutant polypeptides form complexes with the RNA, demonstrating that the 24 C-terminal amino acids, which include a lysine-rich sequence at positions 136-144, are dispensable. A third mutant polypeptide, in which eight additional amino acids were removed by oligonucleotide-directed digestion of the mRNA, was unable to bind. The amino acids in the sequence PKLKTRTQ correspond to positions 113-120; they are suggested to be involved in interaction with signal recognition particle RNA.     

Assembly of the human signal recognition particle (SRP): overlap of regions required for binding of protein SRP54 and assembly control.

Assembly of the human signal recognition particle (SRP) entails the incorporation of protein SRP54, mediated by a protein SRP1 9-induced conformational change in SRP RNA. To localize the region that controls this crucial step in the assembly of human SRP RNA, four chimeras, Ch-1 to Ch-4, composed of portions of human and Methanococcus jannashii SRP RNAs, were generated by PCR site-directed mutagenesis from a larger precursor. Protein-binding activities of the hybrid RNAs were determined using purified human SRP19 and a polypeptide (SRP54M) that corresponded to the methionine-rich domain of human SRP54. Mutant Ch-1 containing the large domain of M. jannashii SRP RNA, as well as mutant Ch-2 RNA in which helices 6 and 8 were replaced, bound SRP54M independently of SRP19. Mutant Ch-3 RNA, which contained M. jannashii helix 6, required SRP19 for binding of SRP54M, but mutant Ch-4 RNA, which possessed M. jannashii helix 8, bound SRP54M without SRP19. We concluded that the formation of a stable ternary complex did not rely on extensive conformational changes that might take place throughout the large domain of SRP, but was controlled by a smaller region encompassing certain RNA residues at positions 177 to 221. Five chimeric RNAs altered within helix 8 were used to investigate the potential role of a significant AA-to-U change and to determine the boundaries of the assembly control region. Reduced protein-binding activities of these chimeras demonstrated a considerable overlap of regions required for SRP54 binding and assembly control.     

Identification of an RNA-binding domain in human SRP72

The signal recognition particle (SRP) is a ribonucleoprotein complex that plays a crucial role during the delivery of secretory proteins from the ribosome to the cell membrane. Among the six proteins of the eukaryotic SRP, the 72 kDa protein (SRP72) is the largest and least characterized. Polypeptides corresponding to various regions of the entire human SRP72 sequence were expressed in Escherichia coli, purified, and partially proteolyzed. Human SRP RNA bound with high affinity to a 63 amino acid residue region near the C terminus of SRP72. Mild treatment of the fragment with chymotrypsin abolished its RNA-binding activity. A conserved sequence with the consensus PDPXRWLPXXER was identified within a 56 amino acid residue RNA-binding domain. Sucrose gradient centrifugation and filter-binding analysis using mutant SRP RNAs showed that SRP72 bound to the moderately conserved portion of SRP RNA helix 5. Nine tetratricopeptide-like repeats (TPRs) poised to interact with other SRP or ribosomal proteins were predicted in the NH2-terminal region. These identifications assign two important functions to a large portion of SRP72 and demonstrate the RNA-binding capacity of the protein.     

Saccharomyces SRP RNA secondary structures: a conserved S-domain and extended Alu-domain

The contribution made by the RNA component of signal recognition particle (SRP) to its function in protein targeting is poorly understood. We have generated a complete secondary structure for Saccharomyces cerevisiae SRP RNA, scR1. The structure conforms to that of other eukaryotic SRP RNAs. It is rod-shaped with, at opposite ends, binding sites for proteins required for the SRP functions of signal sequence recognition (S-domain) and translational elongation arrest (Alu-domain). Micrococcal nuclease digestion of purified S. cerevisiae SRP separated the S-domain of the RNA from the Alu-domain as a discrete fragment. The Alu-domain resolved into several stable fragments indicating a compact structure. Comparison of scR1 with SRP RNAs of five yeast species related to S. cerevisiae revealed the S-domain to be the most conserved region of the RNA. Extending data from nuclease digestion with phylogenetic comparison, we built the secondary structure model for scR1. The Alu-domain contains large extensions, including a sequence with hallmarks of an expansion segment. Evolutionarily conserved bases are placed in the Alu- and S-domains as in other SRP RNAs, the exception being an unusual GU(4)A loop closing the helix onto which the signal sequence binding Srp54p assembles (domain IV). Surprisingly, several mutations within the predicted Srp54p binding site failed to disrupt SRP function in vivo. However, the strength of the Srp54p-scR1 and, to a lesser extent, Sec65p-scR1 interaction was decreased in these mutant particles. The availability of a secondary structure for scR1 will facilitate interpretation of data from genetic analysis of the RNA.     

Structural and functional characterisation of the signal recognition particle-specific 54 kDa protein (SRP54) of tomato

Two representative genes for the 54 kDa protein subunit of the signal recognition particle (SRP54) of tomato were cloned. It was shown that both genes are expressed in the tomato cv. Rentita. SRP54 is encoded by nine exons distributed over 10 kb of genomic sequence. The amino acid sequences deduced for the two SRP54 genes are 92% identical and the calculated protein size is 55 kDa. Like the homologous proteins isolated from other eukaryotes, the tomato SRP54 is evidently divided into two domains. As deduced from sequence motif identity, the N-terminally located G-domain can be assumed to have GTPase activity. The C-terminal part of the protein is methionine rich (14% methionine) and represents the M-domain. In in vitro binding experiments, SRP54 of tomato was able to attach to the 7S RNA of tomato, its natural binding partner in the SRP. This interaction can only take place in a trimeric complex consisting of 7S RNA, SRP54 and SRP19. The latter protein subunit of the SRP complex is assumed to induce a conformational change in the 7S RNA. The human SRP19 was able to mediate the binding of the tomato SRP54 to the 7S RNA, irrespective of whether this latter originated from tomato or man.     

Molecular evolution of SRP cycle components: functional implications.

Signal recognition particle (SRP) is a cytoplasmic ribonucleoprotein that targets a subset of nascent presecretory proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. We have considered the SRP cycle from the perspective of molecular evolution, using recently determined sequences of genes or cDNAs encoding homologs of SRP (7SL) RNA, the Srp54 protein (Srp54p), and the alpha subunit of the SRP receptor (SR alpha) from a broad spectrum of organisms, together with the remaining five polypeptides of mammalian SRP. Our analysis provides insight into the significance of structural variation in SRP RNA and identifies novel conserved motifs in protein components of this pathway. The lack of congruence between an established phylogenetic tree and size variation in 7SL homologs implies the occurrence of several independent events that eliminated more than half the sequence content of this RNA during bacterial evolution. The apparently non-essential structures are domain I, a tRNA-like element that is constant in archaea, varies in size among eucaryotes, and is generally missing in bacteria, and domain III, a tightly base-paired hairpin that is present in all eucaryotic and archeal SRP RNAs but is invariably absent in bacteria. Based on both structural and functional considerations, we propose that the conserved core of SRP consists minimally of the 54 kDa signal sequence-binding protein complexed with the loosely base-paired domain IV helix of SRP RNA, and is also likely to contain a homolog of the Srp68 protein. Comparative sequence analysis of the methionine-rich M domains from a diverse array of Srp54p homologs reveals an extended region of amino acid identity that resembles a recently identified RNA recognition motif. Multiple sequence alignment of the G domains of Srp54p and SR alpha homologs indicates that these two polypeptides exhibit significant similarity even outside the four GTPase consensus motifs, including a block of nine contiguous amino acids in a location analogous to the binding site of the guanine nucleotide dissociation stimulator (GDS) for E. coli EF-Tu. The conservation of this sequence, in combination with the results of earlier genetic and biochemical studies of the SRP cycle, leads us to hypothesize that a component of the Srp68/72p heterodimer serves as the GDS for both Srp54p and SR alpha. Using an iterative alignment procedure, we demonstrate similarity between Srp68p and sequence motifs conserved among GDS proteins for small Ras-related GTPases. The conservation of SRP cycle components in organisms from all three major branches of the phylogenetic tree suggests that this pathway for protein export is of ancient evolutionary origin.     

Structures of SRP54 and SRP19, the two proteins that organize the ribonucleic core of the signal recognition particle from Pyrococcus furiosus

In all organisms the Signal Recognition Particle (SRP), binds to signal sequences of proteins destined for secretion or membrane insertion as they emerge from translating ribosomes. In Archaea and Eucarya, the conserved ribonucleoproteic core is composed of two proteins, the accessory protein SRP19, the essential GTPase SRP54, and an evolutionarily conserved and essential SRP RNA. Through the GTP-dependent interaction between the SRP and its cognate receptor SR, ribosomes harboring nascent polypeptidic chains destined for secretion are dynamically transferred to the protein translocation apparatus at the membrane. We present here high-resolution X-ray structures of SRP54 and SRP19, the two RNA binding components forming the core of the signal recognition particle from the hyper-thermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus furiosus (Pfu). The 2.5 A resolution structure of free Pfu-SRP54 is the first showing the complete domain organization of a GDP bound full-length SRP54 subunit. In its ras-like GTPase domain, GDP is found tightly associated with the protein. The flexible linker that separates the GTPase core from the hydrophobic signal sequence binding M domain, adopts a purely alpha-helical structure and acts as an articulated arm allowing the M domain to explore multiple regions as it scans for signal peptides as they emerge from the ribosomal tunnel. This linker is structurally coupled to the GTPase catalytic site and likely to propagate conformational changes occurring in the M domain through the SRP RNA upon signal sequence binding. Two different 1.8 A resolution crystal structures of free Pfu-SRP19 reveal a compact, rigid and well-folded protein even in absence of its obligate SRP RNA partner. Comparison with other SRP19*SRP RNA structures suggests the rearrangement of a disordered loop upon binding with the RNA through a reciprocal induced-fit mechanism and supports the idea that SRP19 acts as a molecular scaffold and a chaperone, assisting the SRP RNA in adopting the conformation required for its optimal interaction with the essential subunit SRP54, and proper assembly of a functional SRP.     

Binding site of the M-domain of human protein SRP54 determined by systematic site-directed mutagenesis of signal recognition particle RNA.

The interaction of protein SRP54M from the human signal recognition particle with SRP RNA was studied by systematic site-directed mutagenesis of the RNA molecule. Protein binding sites were identified by the analysis of mutations that removed individual SRP RNA helices or disrupted helical sections in the large SRP domain. The strongest effects on the binding activity of a purified polypeptide that corresponds to the methionine-rich domain of SRP54 (SRP54M) were caused by changes in helix 8 of the SRP RNA. Binding of protein SRP19 was diminished significantly by mutations in helix 6 and was stringently required for SRP54M to associate. Unexpectedly, mutant RNA molecules that resembled bacterial SRP RNAs were incapable of interaction with SRP54M, showing that protein SRP19 has an essential and direct role in the formation of the ternary complex with SRP54 and SRP RNA. Our findings provide an example for how, in eukaryotes, an RNA function has become protein dependent.     

Evolutionary substitution of two amino acids in chloroplast SRP54 of higher plants cause its inability to bind SRP RNA

The chloroplast signal recognition particle (cpSRP) consists of a conserved 54kDa subunit (cpSRP54) and a unique 43kDa subunit (cpSRP43) but lacks SRP-RNA, an essential and universally conserved component of cytosolic SRPs. High sequence similarity exists between cpSRP54 and bacterial SRP54 except for a plant-specific C-terminal extension containing the cpSRP43-binding motif. We found that cpSRP54 of higher plants lacks the ability to bind SRP-RNA because of two amino acid substitutions within a region corresponding to the RNA binding domain of cytosolic SRP54, whereas the C-terminal extension does not affect RNA binding. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that these mutations occur in the cpSRP54 homologues of higher plants but not in most algae.