仿刺参在海南地区的苗种培育与养成

为了解海南地区进行仿刺参养殖的可行性,在海南琼海进行了仿刺参苗种中间培育、养成和度夏研究。苗种中间培育时,不同规格仿刺参的生长速度均较快,绝对生长率呈逐渐增加趋势,规格越大绝对生长率越高,但是苗种规格越大个体增重率越小,最小增重率为(317.88±73.2)%;苗种规格越大成活率越高,成活率变动范围为(39.3±4.8)%~(53.7±8.7)%。经过105 d养成后,投喂天然饵料的仿刺参大约是投喂人工饵料刺参的3倍体重,而投喂两种饵料的仿刺参成活率约为60%、彼此间没有显著差异;投喂人工饵料仿刺参的绝对生长率基本恒定,而投喂天然饵料的仿刺参绝对生长率呈现迅速增加的趋势,而且后者至少是前者的2.32倍。度夏结束时仿刺参平均体重均显著下降,至少减少了56.23%;仿刺参度夏时成活率最高仅为(46.4±3.4)%,而且仿刺参室内度夏的成活率明显高于室外度夏仿刺参,大规格仿刺参的成活率略高于小规格仿刺参。因此,在海南地区适宜的季节可以进行南北接力养殖仿刺参。     

刺参病害现状及其生物技术检测的研究进展

随着人工养殖规模的扩大,刺参养殖的病害问题已严重阻碍刺参养殖业的发展,如刺参腐皮综合症、化板病、病毒性疾病等.综述了近年来刺参的养殖工艺和模式,以及常见疾病的症状和防治手段.并针对刺参防御系统的特点,从免疫学和分子生物学方面做了相应的探讨和展望.     

重金属胁迫对刺参胚胎发育的影响简

正刺参(Apostichopus japonicus)又称仿刺参,隶属棘皮动物门海参纲楯手目刺参科,是一种营养和经济价值很高的海洋无脊椎动物[1,2]。主要分布于北起俄罗斯的海参崴,经日本海,朝鲜半岛南到我国黄、渤海以及江苏连云港外的西北太平洋沿岸[3]。近年来,随着人们对刺参高营养价值的认可,刺参的人工养殖规模不断扩     

环境和基因型对刺参幼参表型变异和生长的影响

将6个刺参幼参全同胞家系置于E1(高密度,自然光周期)、E2(低密度,全黑暗)和E3(低密度,自然光周期)3种不同环境下养殖60 d,通过建立模型分析环境、基因型及环境与基因型互作对刺参幼参成活率、生长性状的特定生长率和变异系数的影响.结果表明:环境、基因型及其互作对刺参幼参成活率无显著性影响(P＞0.05)；环境对刺参幼参体长和体重的特定生长率有极显著性影响(P＜0.01),对其变异系数无显著性影响；基因型对刺参幼参体长和体重的特定生长率、体长变异系数有极显著性影响,对刺参幼参体重变异系数有显著性影响(P＜0.05)；基因型与环境互作对刺参幼参体长和体重的特定生长率、变异系数均无显著性影响,因此实验室育种过程中可忽略家系与环境(光周期和密度)互作的影响；E3环境下有利于刺参幼参的生长,其体长和体重的平均特定生长率可达0.03％和1.58％.本研究为刺参家系育种和建立刺参健康养殖模式提供理论依据.     

复合微生态制剂对幼刺参营养成分和 酶活力的影响

目的研究复合微生态制剂对幼刺参体壁营养成分、几种消化酶和免疫酶活力的影响。方法在封闭式循环系统中投喂不同的微生态制剂进行30 d刺参养殖实验。结果投喂液态复合微生态制剂组和粉状复合微生态制剂组的刺参体壁的粗脂肪、总糖、粗蛋白含量最高,两组与对照组相比差异有统计学意义(Ps0.05)。添加微生态制剂的3个实验组刺参肠道蛋白酶、淀粉酶活力均比对照组高,且差异有统计学意义(Ps0.05)。实验组刺参的肠道、体壁、体液过氧化氢酶活力均比对照组高,其中投喂液态复合微生态制剂实验组活力最高。实验组刺参组织的酸性磷酸酶和碱性磷酸酶活力也明显高于对照组(与对照组相比差异有统计学意义,Ps0.05)。结论微生态制剂可以有效改善幼刺参体壁营养成分,促进机体消化活力,提高刺参免疫力。     

仿刺参“化皮病”体壁组织DNA甲基化的MSAP分析

利用甲基化敏感扩增多态性(Methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphism, MSAP)技术分析了健康仿刺参(Apostichopus japonicus)体壁和“化皮病”仿刺参病变体壁、正常体壁DNA序列中CCGG位点的甲基化情况。结果显示, 健康仿刺参体壁和“化皮病”仿刺参病变体壁、正常体壁总甲基化水平分别为(18.60±5.61)%、(26.70±6.82)%和(19.53±3.34)%, 其中全甲基化水平分别为(13.97±4.86)%、(20.08±5.26)%和(15.42±2.61)%, 半甲基化水平分别为(4.63±3.59)%、(6.62±3.80)%和(4.11±2.08)%。“化皮病”仿刺参病变体壁总甲基化水平和全甲基化水平显著高于健康仿刺参体壁和“化皮病”仿刺参正常体壁(P<0.05), 健康仿刺参体壁与“化皮病”仿刺参正常体壁总甲基化水平和全甲基化水平差异不显著(P>0.05); 三者的半甲基化水平无显著差异(P>0.05)。因此, 推测仿刺参体壁“化皮”与DNA甲基化有关。     

刺参对生境的选择性及其行为生理响应

在室内模拟环境条件下, 研究了刺参(Apostichopus japonicus)对鳗草(Zostera marina)、裸沙和石块生境的选择性和偏好性, 比较分析了刺参在不同生境的平均聚集率、行为特征(爬行、摄食与排泄行为)和生理状态(刺参肌肉ATP含量、体腔液多巴胺、肾上腺素、去甲肾上腺素和皮质醇含量)。结果显示: (1)刺参对鳗草生境的选择和偏好显著高于裸沙生境与石块生境, 其在鳗草生境的平均聚集率达到64%, 是裸沙生境的4.5倍; (2)刺参在鳗草生境的行为活动显著高于石块生境与裸沙生境, 其爬行行为和摄食行为的出现频率是石块生境的2倍, 排泄行为明显, 刺参粪便的长度和厚度分别是裸沙生境的1.9倍和2.5倍; (3)刺参在鳗草生境的肌肉ATP含量是裸沙生境和石块生境的2倍。结果表明, 刺参对鳗草生境具有明显的选择性, 其在鳗草生境行为活跃, 免疫功能提高, 说明鳗草草床是刺参绿色生态牧场构建的优良生境。     

南移刺参摄食三种沉积物饵料下的生长和能量收支比较

为研究不同沉积物对南移刺参的影响,测定了南移刺参对三种不同沉积物(海区沉积物、对虾养殖池沉积物、人工配制沉积物)的摄食,吸收效率和能量收支。结果表明,规格为26.11±1.5g的南移刺参在温度为17±1℃时,不同组别南移刺参对不同种沉积物的摄食率无显著差异(P>0.05),对虾组和人工组南移刺参同化效率和特定生长率显著高于海区组(P<0.05),且对虾组同化效率和特定生长率最高。通过对能量收支方程的探究,各组别代谢能无显著差异(P>0.05),对虾组南移刺参生长能显著高于其他两组(P<0.05),其能量收支方程为:100C=12.35G+34.91F+8.05U+44.69R。研究表明,特定养殖条件下,用虾塘沉积物喂食南移刺参时,刺参摄食能量较多的分配至生长,生长速率较快,利用虾塘沉积物作为饵料是一种可取模式。     

刺参基因组DNA提取的探讨

以刺参为试验材料,分别以CTAB法、SDS法、Segama试剂盒法对刺参的触手、管足、体壁、纵肌、肠和呼吸树组织进行基因组DNA的提取,均得到了高质量的基因组DNA。Segama试剂盒提取DNA条带较其他两种方法清晰,杂质少且无降解,效果最佳。对比6种不同的刺参组织,其中纵肌组织3种方法均获得高质量基因组DNA,为提取基因组DNA的首选组织。开发了利用刺参触手和管足活体取样提取基因组DNA的方法,得到了高质量的基因组DNA,这为刺参无损伤取样提供了数据支持,使得将来刺参家系建立过程中保证亲体的健康存活及减少试验样品取样所带来的损伤成为可能。     

微生物方法降解刺参养殖池塘中氨态氮的研究进展

随着刺参养殖业的迅速发展,刺参池塘养殖暴露出诸多问题,如水体氨态氮含量高、病害严重、单位产量下降等.传统药物弊端较多,微生物方法成为降解水体中氨态氮含量和预防病害发生的新的有效途径.综合阐述了刺参池塘养殖过程中氨态氮对刺参的危害和微生物降解氨态氮的利弊,并介绍了水体中氨态氮高效降解菌株的筛选以及现有微生态制剂存在的问题,对微生物方法降解刺参养殖池塘氨态氮的前景进行了展望.     

略论棕榈科与新分出的省藤科的系统分类、演化、区系地理及主要的经济用途

棕榈科原省藤亚科因其子房壁及外果皮被倒生、螺旋状排列的鳞片所覆盖,而区别于其他亚科,因而独立分出成一新科--省藤科。作者讨论了棕榈科的祖先种可能在石炭纪时,自原始裸子植物开以顿目在分化、衍生出苏铁目祖先种的进化干上,于白垩纪时分化出的一个分支。在棕榈科的祖先种出现不久后,在其进化的分支上,于白垩纪后期又分化出一旁支,成为棕榈科的姊妹科--省藤科的祖先种。从两祖先种分别再分化、衍生出现今分布地球上该二科的属与种。两科、尤其前者是被子植物、尤其是单子叶植物中最原始的类群之一。作者还提出棕榈科象牙椰亚科与贝叶棕亚科是该科最原始或较原始的两类群;槟榔亚科和腊材榈亚科是较进化的两类群;而水椰亚科祖先种可能源于象牙椰亚科的祖先种,但又演化为该科最进化与特化的类群。省藤科省藤亚科略比鳞果榈亚科原始。作者讨论了两科为泛热带分布的科,指出两科的"现代分布区"在南北两半球热带地区,少数种还延伸分布到两半球暖亚热带、甚至达中亚热带地区,分布区边缘最北达日本中部、中国长江流域及黄河下游的南部,美国加利佛尼亚州与佛罗里达州和地中海北部;最南达智利中部和新西兰南部;而"现代分布中心"在热带与暖亚热带的亚洲,中、南美洲,大洋洲及非洲的东、南、西部;但分布区的"密集中心"则在热带亚洲、热带中及南美洲、南太平洋群岛及非洲东南部。作者还介绍了近50年我国南方引种驯化成功的两科植物近400种(见^*图谱),其中少数为耐寒的种类,有的种已引种到长江流域或更北的地区。引种的大部分种都有其重要的经济用途,包括:1. 食用,如淀粉和树液可制"西米"或制糖,酿酒、醋或作饮料;果或种子榨油,供食用或工业用;某些种的嫩芽作蔬菜,甚至种子代咖啡饮用;2. 药用,有消炎、止血、活血、驱虫、抗癌等用;3. 建筑、工艺与日用品,包括不少种的树干供建普通房子、桥梁、小船;少数种可提制工业用蜡;许多种的纤维制高级缆绳和编织品;还制工艺品与日用品等;4. 代表热带景观的园林工程、绿化及美化环境的观赏树和人行道树及建造园林景观生态类型的树种等。     

Floral elaiophore structure in four representatives of the Ornithocephalus clade (Orchidaceae: Oncidiinae)

Background and Aims A significant number of species assigned to the Neotropical orchid sub-tribe Oncidiinae reward insect pollinators with oil produced in floral glands termed elaiophores. The latter may be glabrous (epithelial elaiophores) or hirsute (trichomal elaiophores). Although the detailed anatomy and ultrastructure of epithelial elaiophores have been studied for a number of genera, such as Oncidium Sw., Gomesa R. Br. and Trichocentrum Poepp. & Endl., hitherto, trichomal elaiophores have been investigated only for a single species of Oncidiinae, Ornithocephalus ciliatus Lindl. Furthermore, this is the only representative of the Ornithocephalus clade to be investigated to date. Here, an examination is made of the elaiophore anatomy and ultrastructure of a further four species currently assigned to this clade (Ornithocephalus gladiatus Hook., Phymatidium falcifolium Lindl., Zygostates grandiflora (Lindl.) Mansf. and Zygostates lunata Lindl.) and the results compared with those obtained for other Oncidiinae. Methods Elaiophore structure was examined for all species at three stages of flower development: closed bud, first day of anthesis and final stage of anthesis, using light microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and histochemistry. Key Results Elaiophores of O. gladiatus occur upon the lateral lobes of the labellum and display characters intermediate between those of typical epithelial and trichomal elaiophores, in that they are largely glabrous, consisting mainly of cuboidal epidermal cells, but bear short, unicellular hairs proximally. By contrast, the elaiophores of all the other species investigated occur on the callus and are of the trichomal type. In P. falcifolium, these unicellular hairs are capitate. In all species, oil secretion commenced at the closed floral bud stage. Ultrastructurally, the mainly trichomal elaiophores of the four representatives of the Ornithocephalus clade closely resembled the epithelial elaiophores of other Oncidiinae, in that their cells displayed an organelle complement typical of lipid-secreting cells. However, in some taxa, a number of noteworthy characters were present. For example, the elaiophore cuticle of O. gladiatus and P. falcifolium was bi-layered, the outer layer being lamellate, the inner reticulate. The cuticle of Z. grandiflora and Z. lunata was also lamellate, but here, a reticulate layer was absent. Accumulation of secreted oil resulted in the localized distension of the cuticle. Cuticular cracks and pores, however, were absent from all species. The walls of the secretory cells of Z. grandiflora were also atypical in that they had short protuberances or ingrowths, and contained cavities which are thought to be involved in the secretory process. Conclusions Of the species investigated, most displayed similar anatomical organization, their trichomal elaiophores occurring on the labellar callus. They, thus, differ from many other members of the Oncidiinae, where epithelial elaiophores are found either on the callus, or on the lateral lobes of the labellum. However, ultrastructurally, all elaiophores, whether those of representatives of the Ornithocephalus clade, or those of other oil-secreting Oncidiinae, possessed a similar complement of organelles, regardless of whether the elaiophores were trichomal or epithelial. In view of the latter, and the similar chemical composition of oils derived from all Oncidiinae investigated to date, it is probable that position and type of elaiophore, and possibly the structure of the overlying cuticle, play an important role in pollinator selection in these oil-secreting orchids.     

山东山旺Palaeomeryx化石的初步研究

Palaeomeryx 在含义、性质和分类位置上,一直是一个争论较多的属.最近在山旺发现的 Palaeomeryx 完整骨架,为解决上述问题提供了有价值的资料和证据. Palaeomeryx 雄性具有一对眶上"皮骨角"和单一的"枕顶角".根据共近裔性状的分析,本文作者认为 Palaeomeryx 应该归入长颈鹿,作为这一支中最早分出的一个旁支.长颈鹿和鹿科有较近的亲缘关系,而和牛科的关系较远. Palaeomeryx 大概位于 Blastomeryx 和 Leptomeryx 之间,从反刍类主干中分出.山旺的材料,代表本属中一个较原始的新种: Palaeomeryx tricornis. 它的时代,可能相当于欧洲的 MN4 或 MN5.     

Concentration of 17 trace elements in serum and whole blood of plains viscachas (Lagostomus maximus) by ICP-MS, their reference ranges, and their relation to cataract

The reference ranges of the trace elements Al, As, Be, B, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Li, Rb, Se, Sr, and Zn were determined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) in sera of a group of free-ranging plains viscachas of the pampa grasslands of Argentina. The values were compared with those of a small group of captive plains viscachas of the Zurich Zoo with diabetes and bilateral cataracts. In addition, a method for digestion of whole-blood samples is described for the trace element determination. Significant differences in the concentration of trace elements in the two groups of animals are discussed. No correlation was found between the levels of selenium and of other trace elements compared to the formation of cataracts.     

Comparative morphology and evolutionary pathways of the mouthparts in spore-feeding Staphylinoidea (Coleoptera)

This study surveys the external morphology of the mouthparts in the guild of spore‐feeders among the coleopterous superfamily Staphylinoidea, evaluating the influence of different phylogenetic and ecological starting points on the formation of their mouthparts. Our emphasis is on a scanning electron microscope analysis (SEM) of the involved trophic structures in spore‐feeding larvae and adults of the Ptiliidae, Leiodidae and Staphylinidae, describing the fine structure of their main functional elements. Functionally, mouthpart structures resemble brushes, brooms, combs, rakes, rasps, excavators, knives, thorns, cram‐brushes, bristle troughs, blocks and differently structured grinding surfaces. Their different involvement in the various aspects of the feeding process (i.e. food gathering, transporting, channelling and grinding) is deduced from our SEM analyses plus direct video observations. We infer five different patterns of food transport and processing, discriminating adults of ptiliids, leiodids plus staphylinids (excluding some aleocharines), several aleocharine staphylinids, and the larvae of leiodids and staphylinids. The structural diversity of the mouthparts increases in the order from (1) Ptiliidae, (2) Leiodidae towards (3) Staphylinidae, reflecting the increasing systematic and ecological diversity of these groups. Comparisons with non‐spore‐feeders show that among major lineages of staphylinoids, shifts from general microphagy to sporophagy are not necessarily constrained by, nor strongly reflected in, mouthpart morphology. Nevertheless, in several of these lineages the organs of food intake and grinding have experienced particular fine‐structural modifications, which have undergone convergent evolution, probably in response to specialized mycophagy such as spore‐feeding. These modifications involve advanced galeal rakes, galeal or lacinial ‘spore brushes’ with arrays of stout bristles, reinforced obliquely ventrad orientated prosthecal lobes and the differentiations of the molar grinding surfaces into stout teeth or tubercles. In addition, several staphylinids of the tachyporine and oxyteline groups with reduced mandibular molae have evolved secondary trituration surfaces, which in some aleocharines are paralleled by considerable re‐constructions of the labium–hypopharynx.     

Mass ratios of magnesium to calcium and phosphorus in the arteries of Japanese and Thai

To elucidate quantitative changes of Ca, P, and Mg in the arteries with aging, the authors investigated changes of the mass ratios of Mg to Ca and P in the arteries of Japanese and Thai by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry. The arteries of Japanese that were used were the thoracic and abdominal aortas, coronary, common iliac, internal iliac, external iliac, and femoral arteries, in which very high accumulations of Ca and P occurred in old age. The arteries of Thai that were used were the abdominal aorta, ramifying site of the abdominal aorta, coronary, common iliac, internal iliac, and external iliac arteries. It was found that there were extremely significant correlations both between Ca and Mg contents and between P and Mg contents in all of the arteries of the Japanese and the Thai. With regard to the mass ratio, the mass ratios of Mg to Ca ranged from 1.5% to 2.1% in the six arteries of the Japanese, except for the thoracic aorta at 3.1%, at an advanced stage of atherosclerosis, being similar to each other. In the arteries of the Thai, the mass ratios of Mg to Ca ranged from 1.9% to 3.0%, except for the coronary artery at 0.5%, at an advanced stage of atherosclerosis. The mass ratios of Mg to P ranged from 2.5% to 2.7% in the six arteries of the Japanese, except for the coronary artery at 1.8%, at an advanced stage of atherosclerosis. With regard to the arteries of the Thai, the mass ratios of Mg to P ranged from 1.9% to 3.3%, except for the coronary artery at 0.7%, at an advanced stage of atherosclerosis. These results revealed that both the mass ratios of Mg to Ca and Mg to P were almost similar among the arteries of Japanese and Thai, except for the coronary arteries. Therefore, these results suggested that the inorganic deposits in the coronary arteries of Japanese and Thai were similar to those in the intimal tunica of the thoracic aorta, whereas in the other arteries, they were similar to those in the middle tunica of the thoracic aorta.     

Effects of Microbial and Other Antagonistic Organism and Competition on Entomopathogenic Nematodes

Antagonistic factors, broadly identified as antibiosis, competition and natural enemies, impact on entomopathogenic nematodes. Antibiosis can occur through the release of plant chemicals from the roots into the soil, which may adversely affect the host-finding behavior of the infective stage nematode, or the presence of these chemicals in the host insect may negatively affect nematode reproduction. In laboratory studies, intra-specific and inter-specific competition reduces nematode fitness, and inter-specific competition can cause local extinction of a nematode species. For example, after concomitant infection of a host, a steinernematid species usually excludes a heterorhabditid species. The mechanism for the steinernematid superiority has been postulated to be a bacteriocin(s) produced by Xenorhabdus, the symbiotic bacterium of the steinernematid, which prevents Photorhabdus, the symbiotic bacterium of the heterorhabditid, from multiplying. Inter-specific competition between two steinernematid species shows that both can co-exist in a host, but one species will eventually prevail in the environment. By having different foraging strategies, however, both steinermatid species may co-exist in the same habitat. An important issue is whether the introduction of an exotic entomopathogenic nematode species will competitively displace an indigenous nematode species. Although the environmental risks are small, the recommended policy is that the introduction of exotic nematodes be regulated. With other pathogens, entomopathogenic nematodes can out-compete entomopathogenic fungi, but not Bacillus thuringiensis, for the same host individual when both the nematode and entomopathogen are applied simultaneously. The best studied natural enemy is the nematophagous fungus, Hirsutella rhossiliensis, which causes higher mortality in Steinernema glaseri compared with Heterorhabditis bacteriorphora. Differential susceptibility to the fungus may be associated with the retention of the second-stage cuticle by H. bacteriophora. Invertebrate predators including mites and collembolans feed on entomopathogenic nematodes. Although a number of studies have been conducted with antagonists, there is a dearth of field data. We suggest that long-term research plots be established where natural populations of entomopathogenic nematodes occur and include antagonists as a component of such studies.     

Tissue specific protochlorophyll(ide) forms in dark-forced shoots of grapevine (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vitis vinifera</Emphasis>L.)

Cuttings of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L. cv. Chardonnay) were dark-forced at least three weeks. Pigment contents, 77 K fluorescence emission, excitation spectra of the leaves, petioles, stems, transmission electron micrographs of the etioplasts from leaves, the chlorenchyma tissues of the stems were analysed. The dark-grown leaves, stems contained 8 to 10, 3 to 5 μg/g fresh weight protochlorophyllide, its esters, respectively. HPLC analysis showed that the molar ratio of the unesterified, esterified pigments was 7:3 in the shoot developed in darkness. The dark-forced leaves contained carotenoids identified as: neoxanthin, violaxanthin, antheraxanthin, lutein, β-carotene. Detailed analyses of the fluorescence spectra proved that all tissues of the dark-forced shoots had protochlorophyllide or protochlorophyll forms with emission maxima at 628, 636, 644, 655, 669 nm. The 628, 636 nm emitting forms were present in all parts of the dark-forced shoot, but dominated in the stems, which may indicate an organ specificity of the etioplast development. Variations in the distribution of the pigment forms were even found in the different tissues of the stem. The subepidermal layers were more abundant in the 655 nm form than the parenchyma cells of the inner part of the cortex, the pith. In the latter cells, the plastid differentiation stopped in intermediary stages between proplastids, etioplasts. The plastids in the subepidermal layers had developed prolamellar body structures, which were similar to those of etiolated leaves. The results highlight the importance of organ-, tissue specificity of plastid differentiation for chlorophyll biosynthesis, greening of different plant organs. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

On the influence of fishes on the evolution of benthic crustaceans

Though the interweavement of trophic chains in marine ecosystems of the past cannot be reconstructed, as the abundance, nutrition, reproductive rates and other aspects of the biology of fossil species are not known, it is possible to correlate trends in the evolution of single groups of animals, in the presented case the Crustacea, with the influence of other evolving organisms. The evolution of carnivorous, buoyant, well swimming modern fishes probably induced profound changes in marine ecosystems and influenced the evolution of crustaceans. Indications for these interactions are a. the absence or rare occurrence of defenseless archaic crustaceans in habitats, which are populated by teleostean fishes and the survival of some of these forms in refuges like caves and subterranean waters, and b. the reduction of the pleon in the course of the mesozoic evolution of the Decapoda, which occurs parallel to the radiation of the Teleostei, namely in the period between the early Jurassic and the Tertiary. The shortening of the pleon is interreted as a consequence of the stepwise change from a hyperbenthic to a more benthic Iife-stJe and the abandonment of the caridoid escape reaction. Other adaptations are also construed as results from the selective pressure produced by predators. Extant crustaceans which are able to coexist with fishes, among the macrozoobenthos especially the Decapoda and Peracarida, have a variety of protective adaptations, which help to reduce predation.