Impacts of nitrogen fertilization on volatile organic compound emissions from decomposing plant litter

Nonmethane volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are reactive, low molecular weight gases that can have significant effects on soil and atmospheric processes. Research into biogenic VOC sources has primarily focused on plant emissions, with few studies on VOC emissions from decomposing plant litter, another potentially important source. Likewise, although there have been numerous studies examining how anthropogenic increases in nitrogen (N) availability can influence litter decomposition rates, we do not know how VOC emissions may be affected. In this study, we measured the relative contribution of VOCs to the total carbon (C) emitted from decomposing litter and how N amendments affected VOC emissions. We incubated decomposing litter from 12 plant species over 125 days, measuring both CO₂ and VOC emissions throughout the incubation. We found that VOCs represented a large portion of C emissions from a number of the litter types with C emissions as VOCs ranging from 0% to 88% of C emissions as CO₂. Methanol was the dominant VOC emitted, accounting for 28–99% of total VOC emissions over the incubation period. N additions increased CO₂ production in 7 of the 12 litter types by 5–180%. In contrast, N additions decreased VOC emissions in 8 of the 12 litter types, reducing net VOC emissions to near zero. The decrease in VOC emissions was occasionally large enough to account for the increased CO₂ emissions on a per unit C basis, suggesting that N additions may not necessarily accelerate C loss from decomposing litter but rather just switch the form of C emitted. Together these results suggest that, for certain litter types, failure to account for VOC emissions may lead to an underestimation of C losses from litter decomposition and an overestimation of the effects of N additions on rates of litter decomposition.     

大气二氧化碳浓度增加对木本植物BVOCs释放的影响

植物挥发性有机化合物(biogenic volatile organic compounds,BVOCs)在近地表臭氧和二次有机气溶胶生成中有重要作用,而大气CO2浓度上升对植物BVOCs释放有显著影响。利用Meta-analysis方法对已发表的数据进行整合分析发现:(1)总体而言,大气CO2浓度增加会导致不同木本植物(常绿与落叶) BVOCs释放降低;(2)就不同木本植物BVOCs释放而言,大气CO2浓度增加主要导致落叶植物BVOCs释放速率降低,而常绿植物则以增加为主;(3)就植物释放BVOCs种类而言,大气CO2浓度增加显著降低异戊二烯的释放速率,对单萜烯释放速率则无显著影响。结果可为阐明陆地生态系统BVOCs释放对全球CO2浓度增加的响应提供依据。     

城市植物挥发性有机化合物排放与臭氧相互作用及其机制

近地面臭氧(O₃)已成为继PM_2.5后影响我国空气质量的一种重要二次污染物。随着氮氧化物浓度的持续下降和气候变暖的加剧,城市O₃的形成对挥发性有机化合物的浓度更加敏感。近年来城市绿色空间显著增长,植物源挥发性有机化合物(BVOCs)排放和浓度逐年增加。针对BVOCs与近地面O₃之间复杂的交互作用,从植物BVOCs的特性与作用出发,综述了不同因素尤其是O₃浓度增加对树木生理状态及BVOCs排放速率的影响,定量分析了已有研究中O₃对不同植物异戊二烯和单萜烯排放速率的影响,以及BVOCs对O₃形成的贡献,总结了BVOCs与O₃相互作用研究领域存在的不足。未来亟需加强的研究包括：(1)城市树种BVOCs排放因子的实测,建立物种的排放速率数据库,优化模型参数,提升精细尺度BVOCs排放量估算模型精度;(2)多种环境因子,比如污染物浓度、温湿度等对城市植物BVOCs排放的交互作用和综合影响的研究;(3)植物BVOCs对O     

On the induction of volatile organic compound emissions by plants as consequence of wounding or fluctuations of light and temperature

Among the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by plants, some are characteristic of stress conditions, but their biosynthesis and the metabolic and environmental control over the emission are still unclear. We performed experiments to clarify whether (1) the emission following wounding can occur at distance from the wounding site, from VOC pools subjected to metabolic signals; and (2) the emission of biogenic VOCs generated by membrane damage (e.g. consequent to wounding or ozone exposure) can also be induced by exposure to high light and high temperature, recurrent in nature. In Phragmites australis, leaf cutting caused large and rapid bursts of acetaldehyde both at the cutting site and on parts of the cut leaf distant from the cutting site. This emission was preceded by a transient stomatal opening and did not occur in conditions preventing stomatal opening. This suggests the presence of a large pool of leaf acetaldehyde whose release is under stomatal control. VOCs other than isoprene, particularly acetaldehyde and (E)-2-hexenal, one of the C-6 compounds formed by the denaturation of membrane lipids, were released by leaves exposed to high temperature and high light. The high-temperature treatment (45 degrees C) also caused a rapid stimulation and then a decay of isoprene emission in Phragmites leaves. Isoprene recovered to the original emission level after suspending the high-temperature treatment, suggesting a temporary deficit of photosynthetically formed substrate under high temperature. Emission of C-6 compounds was slowly induced by high temperature, and remained high, indicating that membrane denaturation occurs also after suspending the high-temperature treatment. Conversely, the emission of C-6 compounds was limited to the high-light episode in Phragmites. This suggests that a membrane denaturation may also occur in conditions that do not damage other important plant processes such as the photochemistry of photosynthesis of photoinhibition-insensitive plants. In the photoinhibition-sensitive Arabidopsis thaliana mutant NPQ1, a large but transient emission of (E)-2-hexenal was also observed a few minutes after the high-light treatment, indicating extensive damage to the membranes. However, (E)-2-hexenal emission was not observed in Arabidopsis plants fumigated with isoprene during the high-light treatment. This confirms that isoprene can effectively protect cellular membranes from denaturation. Our study indicates that large, though often transient, VOC emissions by plants occur in nature. In particular, we demonstrate that VOCs can be released by much larger tissues than those wounded and that even fluctuations of light and temperature regularly observed in nature can induce their emissions. This knowledge adds information that is useful for the parameterization of the emissions and for the estimate of biogenic VOC load in the atmosphere.     

大气CO2浓度和温度升高对木荷和杉木幼苗土壤卤代烃含量的影响

大气CO2浓度增加和温度升高引起的全球变化对土壤生态系统的生物地球化学过程产生了重要影响.挥发性卤代烃(VOXs)的合成与释放是土壤参与全球物质循环与能量流动的重要途径.本研究以南亚热带乔木幼苗木荷和杉木为对象,设置对照(CK)、CO2浓度升高(EC)、增温(ET)以及两者同时升高(EC+ET)4个处理,运用开顶箱及吹...     

Volatile organic compound emissions from Microcystis aeruginosa under different phosphorus sources and concentrations

In eutrophicated water, cyanobacteria massively grow and release an abundance of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that contribute to the water odor. To uncover the effects of different phosphorus (P) nutrients on the formation of cyanobacteria VOCs and water odor, the cell growth and VOC emissions of Microcystis aeruginosa were investigated under different P nutrient conditions. Among K₂HPO₄, Na₄P₂O₇, and (NaPO₃)₆, K₂HPO₄ showed the largest increase in cell density, while a reduction in P concentration decreased the cell density. There were 26, 23 and 22 compounds in M. aeruginosa VOCs with K₂HPO₄, Na₄P₂O₇ and (NaPO₃)₆ as the sole P source, respectively, including sulfocompounds, terpenoids, benzenes, hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, and esters. Non‐P markedly promoted the VOC emission, and six additional compounds were observed: α‐pinene, 1‐phenyl‐1‐butanone, 1H‐1‐ethylidene‐indene, 2,6,10‐trimethyl‐tetradecane, 2‐ethyl‐hexanal, and acetic acid 2‐ethylhexyl ester. It can be deduced that cyanobacteria release different VOC blends using various P forms in eutrophicated waters, and the reduction of P amount promotes VOC emission and increases the water odor.     

Ecological functions of volatile organic compounds in aquatic systems

In terrestrial ecosystems, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are widely acknowledged as an important group of infochemicals. They play a major role in pollinator attraction by terrestrial plants and as insect pheromones. Furthermore, they are the mediating agent of so-called 'tritrophic interactions'. When plants are attacked by herbivorous insects, volatile signal substances are emitted, which act as attractants for parasitoids that kill the herbivores, thereby protecting the plant from herbivory. Despite the generally acknowledged importance of VOCs in terrestrial chemical ecology, their functions in aquatic food webs are largely unknown. VOCs produced by algae and cyanobacteria are a major concern in water processing, since aquatic primary producers are the reason for regularly encountered taste and odour problems in drinking water. Only very recently, research in aquatic chemical ecology has started to investigate possible ecological functions for the production of VOCs by algae and cyanobacteria. Volatile aldehydes released by wounded cells of marine planktonic diatoms seem to act as defensive compounds against herbivorous copepods on the population level. Just recently, it was found that VOCs released from benthic algae and cyanobacteria can be utilised as food and/or habitat finding cues by aquatic invertebrates such as freshwater gastropods and nematodes. Here, I review concepts and recent experimental studies on the ecological functions of such VOCs in aquatic ecosystems. Understanding the factors that lead to the liberation of volatile compounds is an essential prerequisite to properly assessing their ecological functions. It appears that (similar to terrestrial plant-herbivore interactions) VOCs can also play a steering role for both attraction and defence in aquatic ecosystems.     

Health risk assessment of volatile organic compounds in urban areas

The atmosphere is the first medium containing hazardous compounds entering the living environment. Metropolitan areas contain many industrial complex areas with high emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and consequently also large-scale exposure groups. As respiration is the most important part of the human exposure pathway, the atmosphere should be treated with greater importance than other media. It is therefore very important to monitor the emission of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) and measure the concentration of VOCs in the atmosphere of such areas. It is essential to establish basic measures in order to protect public health as part of overall national safety management. This study utilized the national air pollution monitoring network data from Seoul, Incheon, and Gyeonggi, and investigated the differences in risk levels for humans considering various factors of the receptors, including gender and age. A total of 13 VOCs were categorized into carcinogens and noncarcinogens for risk assessment. The carcinogens 1,3-butadiene and benzene demonstrated a high level of cancer risk, ranging between 10^?4 and 10^?6, respectively. Noncarcinogens did not exceed Hazard Quotient (HQ) 1 in any area. The results will serve as important references for managing urban air environments and setting air quality standards.     

The consequences of volatile organic compound mediated bacterial and fungal interactions

Microbial interactions via infochemicals are fundamental to the development of spatial distribution and activity variations in ecosystems. Microorganisms produce a wide range of infochemicals, frequently secondary metabolites, most of which are soluble and many volatile. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have been identified in soil atmospheres and related to community structure and function. VOC profiles produced by microorganisms are consistent, relating to cultural conditions, environment and inputs, and so to population and function dynamics. VOC-mediated interactions can result in functional responses by the organisms involved that result in selective advantage to some community members. Positive, negative or neutral interactions can occur between a very wide range of soil bacteria and fungi. These effects include both stimulation and inhibition of growth, by 40 and 60%, respectively, and enzyme production. These effects are usually transient, e.g. removal of an antagonist is followed by complete recovery. Up- and down-regulation of gene expression, by mRNA and protein profiling has been demonstrated. VOCs have played an important role during the evolution of microorganisms in the context of their communities. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Origin of volatile organic compound emissions from subarctic tundra under global warming

Warming occurs in the Arctic twice as fast as the global average, which in turn leads to a large enhancement in terpenoid emissions from vegetation. Volatile terpenoids are the main class of biogenic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that play crucial roles in atmospheric chemistry and climate. However, the biochemical mechanisms behind the temperature‐dependent increase in VOC emissions from subarctic ecosystems are largely unexplored. Using ¹³CO₂‐labeling, we studied the origin of VOCs and the carbon (C) allocation under global warming in the soil–plant–atmosphere system of contrasting subarctic heath tundra vegetation communities characterized by dwarf shrubs of the genera Salix or Betula. The projected temperature rise of the subarctic summer by 5°C was realistically simulated in sophisticated climate chambers. VOC emissions strongly depended on the plant species composition of the heath tundra. Warming caused increased VOC emissions and significant changes in the pattern of volatiles toward more reactive hydrocarbons. The ¹³C was incorporated to varying degrees in different monoterpene and sesquiterpene isomers. We found that de novo monoterpene biosynthesis contributed to 40%–44% (Salix) and 60%–68% (Betula) of total monoterpene emissions under the current climate, and that warming increased the contribution to 50%–58% (Salix) and 87%–95% (Betula). Analyses of above‐ and belowground ^12/13C showed shifts of C allocation in the plant–soil systems and negative effects of warming on C sequestration by lowering net ecosystem exchange of CO₂ and increasing C loss as VOCs. This comprehensive analysis provides the scientific basis for mechanistically understanding the processes controlling terpenoid emissions, required for modeling VOC emissions from terrestrial ecosystems and predicting the future chemistry of the arctic atmosphere. By changing the chemical composition and loads of VOCs into the atmosphere, the current data indicate that global warming in the Arctic may have implications for regional and global climate and for the delicate tundra ecosystems.     

植物源VOCs及其对陆地生态系统碳循环的贡献

综述了近20a来国内外关于植物源VOCs的研究进展。分析了植物源VOCs主要组成成分、生理-生态基础,以及影响植物VOCs释放速率的主要因素。重点探讨了植物源VOCs对陆地生态系统碳循环的潜在重要性,提出一些值得关注的问题。     

Drought stress of apple trees alters leaf emissions of volatile compounds

Actively growing potted apple trees ( Malus domestica [L.] Borkh. ev. Delicious) unacclimated to drought stress were subjected to drought to determine changes in emissions of leaf volatile compounds. Drought stress was imposed over a 2-week period by weighing pots every 2 or 3 days and adding water hack to an arbitrary and decreasing traction of the original pot weight. Stem water potential was -2.7. -2.0 and -0.8 MPa for the severely stressed, moderately stressed and control trees, respectively. 13 days alter watering treatments were begun. Water use the last 4 days of the experiment was about one-half for the moderately and severely stressed trees compared to that of the controls Twenty-nine volatile compounds were identified by using gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy. Emission rates of hexanal, (E)-2-hexenal, (E)-2-hexen-1-ol, 1-hexenol, hexyl acetate and (E)-2-hexenyl acetate were 5 to 310 times higher for severely stressed trees compared to those of the controls with the moderately stressed trees intermediate. The large increases in hexanal. (E)-2-hexenal and l-hexanol may be related. In enhanced lipoxygenase activity. Volatile compounds are products of metabolism and measurement of their changes after biotic or abiotic stresses will increase understanding of the relationship of changes in plant metabolism by those stresses.     

Few long-term effects of simulated climate change on volatile organic compound emissions and leaf chemistry of three subarctic dwarf shrubs

Climate change is exposing arctic ecosystems to higher temperature, increased nutrient availability and shading due to the increasing cloud cover and the expanding forests. In this work, we assessed how these factors affect the emissions of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) from three subarctic dwarf shrub species in a field experiment after 18 treatment years. Of the studied species the willow Salix phylicifolia L. was the only isoprene-emitter with an emission potential of 16.1 ± 8.4 μg g⁻¹ dw h⁻¹ (at 30 °C and photosynthetic photon flux density of 1000 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹). The dwarf birch Betula nana L. had significant emissions of various reactive BVOCs, including monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. The evergreen Cassiope tetragona (L.) D. Don emitted high amounts of mono- and sesquiterpenes. Due to chance, the temperature in the warming treatment (employing open-top plastic tents) and the unwarmed treatments was similar at the time of the measurements, and therefore long-term indirect effects of warming could be assessed without interference of temperature differences at the time of measurement. The long-term warming had not altered foliar N, P or condensed tannin concentrations, but it had led to other chemical changes detected in the near-infrared reflectance spectra of the leaves. Nevertheless, there were no significant differences in the BVOC emissions per unit leaf mass measured by the dynamic enclosure method and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Annual additions of NPK fertilizer, which mimicked increased nutrient availability, had accumulated P in the leaves of all species. In addition, fertilization marginally increased the leaf N concentration of B. nana. The only significant fertilization effect on BVOC emissions was a stimulation of emission of the sesquiterpene β-selinene from S. phylicifolia. The shading treatment obtained by dome-shaped hessian tents did not cause clear long-term changes in leaf chemistry or BVOC emissions. The only observed change was a marginally significant increase in sesquiterpene emissions from B. nana. When the treatment effects on long-term biomass changes in the different treatments were taken into account by proportioning the BVOC emissions to the biomass of each species in the field treatments, warming led to a significant increase and shading to a decrease in the total BVOC emissions per unit ground area from B. nana. These results highlight the importance of an integrated approach for realistic assessment of responses to climate change.     

Antifungal effects of volatile organic compounds from the endophytic fungus Cryptosporiopsis ericae Cc-HG-7 isolated from Coptis chinensis Franch

In this study, 136 strains of endophytic fungi were isolated from the Chinese traditional medicinal plant Coptis chinensis Franch. Of these, 129 strains were classified into 12 different genera according to morphological traits and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) gene sequence analyses. Their antifungal activities were assessed against the following fungi: Magnaporthe oryzae, Pythium graminicola, Cylindrocarpon destructans, Fusarium oxysporum, Cercospora zeae-maydis, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Setosphaeria turcica and Botrytis cinerea. Fourteen endophytic strains were active against at least one of the selected fungi. The most active strain Cc-HG-7 identified as Cryptosporiopsis ericae displayed inhibition rates of 81.42% and 72.00%, respectively, against S. sclerotiorum and S. turcica in dual culture technique. The volatile antifungal compounds were identified using headspace solid-phase microextraction, followed by gas chromatography mass spectrometry to investigate the potential biocontrol mechanisms of strain Cc-HG-7. The results suggested that the strain Cc-HG-7 could be a potential agent for the biological control of S. sclerotiorum and S. turcica.     

Biogenic volatile organic compounds as potential carbon sources for microbial communities in soil from the rhizosphere of Populus tremula

Catabolism of a (14)C-labelled volatile monoterpene compound (geraniol) to (14)CO(2) was investigated in soils taken from the rhizosphere at distances up to 200 cm from the trunks of three small Populus tremula trees growing at different sites in Slovenia. Emissions of limonene of up to 18 microg m(-2) h(-1) were detected from the soil surface at each site. Evolution of (14)C-labelled CO(2) was measured as a product of catabolism of (14)C-labelled geraniol introduced into the soil samples. Indigenous soil microorganisms degraded the geraniol rapidly. There was a significant difference in relative lag times and rates of catabolism along the gradient from the tree trunks, with relatively longer lag times and lower rates occurring in soil samples from the farthest point from the tree.     

Identification of Campylobacter infection in chickens from volatile faecal emissions

Volatile organic compounds from chicken faeces were investigated as biomarkers for Campylobacter infection. Campylobacter are major poultry-borne zoonotic pathogens, colonizing the avian intestinal tract. Chicken faeces are the principal source of contamination of carcasses. Fresh faeces were collected on farm sites, and Campylobacter status established microbiologically. Volatile organic compounds were pre-concentrated from the headspace above 71 separate faecal samples using solid-phase microextraction and separated and identified by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. A Campylobacter-specific profile was identified using six of the extracted volatile organic compounds. The model developed reliably identified the presence or absence of Campylobacter in >95% of chickens. The volatile biomarker identification approach for assessing avian infection is a novel approach to enhancing biosecurity in the poultry industry and should reduce the risk of disease transmission to humans.     

城市植物源挥发性有机化合物排放特征及其大气环境效应研究进展

在外界环境的刺激下,植物会通过释放挥发性有机化合物来维护自身生长。城市是人类活动的主要集聚地,剧烈的人为干扰导致城市环境特征呈现出复杂的变化趋势,从而使城市植物排放挥发性有机化合物的过程与自然界出现较大差异。城市中的植物源挥发性有机化合物(Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds, BVOCs)会直接与城市中的氧化物质接触,生成二次污染物,并在高温、强光照的条件下发生光化学反应,严重破坏城市大气环境,危害居民健康。总结了城市BVOCs的常见类型、作用机制及现有研究方法,分析了不同时间、空间和人类活动背景下的城市BVOCs排放特征,并进一步梳理了当前研究的不足,提出未来重点研究方向,旨在为大气环境治理、环境空间规划、居民健康保障等方面的城市管理工作提供指导。     

植物源挥发性有机物的生态意义(综述)

植物释放的挥发性有机气体(volatile organic compounds, VOCs)在对流层大气中通过一系列氧化还原反应,改变大气的化学组成,对臭氧合成、一氧化碳生成、甲烷氧化等有重要作用,其氧化物质对区域乃至全球的环境和气候都产生一定的影响。本文综述植物释放的VOCs对大气化学、温室效应、光化学烟雾的影响;介绍VOCs释放机制、合成途径及排放速率;对今后研究方向和大面积种植林木、城市绿化提出建议。     

Comparison of volatile organic compounds from uninfested and Monochamus alternatus Hope infested Pinus massoniana Lamb.

Monochamus alternatus is a destructive stem‐boring herbivore of Pinus massoniana, and the principal vector of pine wood nematode. To investigate the impacts of boring by M. alternatus larvae on the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from their host trees, the VOCs from uninfested and M. alternatus larvae infested P. massoniana trees were observed using a gas chromatograph–mass spectrometer. We detected 12, 9, 18 and 14 volatile organic compounds from infested xylem, infested phloem, uninfested xylem and uninfested phloem, respectively. In P. massoniana xylem, the boring of M. alternatus larvae induced cyclosativene, and inhibited 4‐carene, humulene, styrene, α‐phellandrene, β‐myrcene, β‐phellandrene and γ‐terpinene. The relative amounts of camphene, copacamphene, longicyclene, longifolene, tricyclene and α‐longipinene were significantly increased, and the relative amounts of α‐pinene and β‐pinene were significantly decreased by the boring behaviors of M. alternatus larvae. In P. massoniana phloem, the boring of M. alternatus larvae induced 2‐bornanone, copacamphene, longicyclene and α‐longipinene, and inhibited 2‐carene, 4‐carene, styrene, α‐phellandrene, β‐myrcene, β‐phellandrene, β‐pinene, γ‐terpinene and ο‐cymene. The relative amounts of camphene, caryophyllene and longifolene were significantly increased by the boring behaviors of M. alternatus larvae. The results indicate that the boring behaviors of M. alternatus larvae changed both the sorts and contents of the VOCs from P. massoniana trees.