选择性自噬受体TAX1BP1的研究进展及意义

自噬是真核细胞内主要的降解系统之一,在清除细胞内受损物质方面发挥着重要作用。近年来,自噬与疾病的关系成为研究的热门话题。自噬功能的异常往往影响着疾病的发生、发展及预后。细胞通过自噬途径选择性地清除某些细胞质成分的过程称为选择性自噬。选择性自噬的发生通常需要自噬受体的参与,不同的自噬受体发挥的具体功能也不尽相同。其中,Tax1结合蛋白1(Tax1-binding protein 1,TAX1BP1)作为选择性自噬接头蛋白的一员,主要由一个SKIP羧基同源性域(SKIP carboxyl homology,SKICH)、一个微管相关蛋白I轻链3结合结构域(LC3-interacting region,LIR)、三个卷曲螺旋和一个羧基末端泛素锌指结合(ubiquitin-binding zinc finger,UBZ)结构域构成。这些结构域介导了TAX1BP1与其他蛋白质的相互作用,并在一定程度上对TAX1BP1在细胞中的功能产生影响。TAX1BP1同时调节NF-κB、JNK等信号通路;它广泛地参与到线粒体自噬、异体自噬以及溶酶体自噬等自噬进程中去;TAX1BP1的异常表达与炎症反应、恶性肿...     

受体酪氨酸激酶对自噬的调控及其研究进展*

自噬是真核生物进化上保守的溶酶体降解的生物学过程,在维护细胞内的稳态、消除有害组分等方面起到了重要作用。受体酪氨酸激酶家族(receptor tyrosine kinase,RTKs)是一类激酶蛋白,在正常细胞和癌症细胞的运动和侵袭中起着重要作用。RTKs蛋白既能促进自噬,也能抑制自噬。研究显示,RTKs能够在肿瘤和相关疾病中发挥自噬作用,比如表皮生长因子受体(epidermal growth factor receptor,EGFR)可以抑制自噬,从而促进肿瘤生长、增殖;还能通过RTK/Ras/ERK信号通路诱导自噬,进而参与诸如细胞免疫反应之类的相关疾病。主要综述了RTKs对自噬的调控作用和相关研究成果,为靶点靶向疗法的理论依据提供了基础。     

受体相互作用蛋白3（RIP3）调控细胞自噬的研究进展

受体相互作用蛋白3(receptor-interacting protein 3,RIP3)是一种丝氨酸-苏氨酸蛋白激酶，因其参与细胞自噬的调控而受到广泛关注。本文就RIP3在细胞自噬的发展和调控机制中的作用进行了总结。RIP3可参与mTOR信号通路的调节，同时与多种自噬所必须的蛋白发生相互作用，包括GNAI3/RGSI9、P62和TFEB等，从而其在自噬启动、自噬体形成和自噬溶酶体成熟等多个阶段发挥正向或负向调控作用，为进一步探究RIP3对细胞程序性死亡的调控机制及相关疾病治疗的潜在分子靶标筛选提供参考。     

自噬在大鼠肝再生中作用的初步探讨

自噬对肝再生有积极的作用,但具体作用机制仍有待阐明。为了解自噬在大鼠肝再生的变化和机理,通过蛋白质组学(i TRAQ方法)检测了大鼠肝再生中调控自噬的信号通路相关蛋白和自噬过程相关蛋白的变化。结果表明,调控自噬的PI3K/Akt,m TOR,AMPK均被激活,泛素-蛋白酶体相关蛋白发生显著表达变化,溶酶体相关膜蛋白和水解酶发生显著变化。IPA分析发现,自噬在肝再生的启动阶段和进展阶段上调。根据研究结果,提出线粒体和溶酶体共存假说,并初步探讨并图示其存在的可能性和机理。     

TRP通道与自噬相关性的探讨

TRP通道(Transient Receptor Potential,瞬时受体电位通道)是细胞内重要的Ca~(2+)调控通道,其在细胞内有着独特的分布及其能与其它钙离子传感元件特定地相互作用。TRP通道蛋白通过对Ca~(2+)的调控发挥调节细胞的多种生理活动,如自噬和凋亡等。其中细胞质膜或是细胞器膜上的这些钙离子通道开放后可提升胞质[Ca~(2+)]i,为自噬的启动提供Ca~(2+)。自噬启动的初衷是为了使细胞能够在缺氧、营养匮乏及病理因素等应激状态下降解细胞内某些细胞成分满足某些重要生理活动的物质需求,但有大量的研究显示过度的自噬可导致细胞发生与凋亡相关的细胞程序性死亡,因而TRP通道对自噬的调控作用与疾病的发生、发展紧密相连,如TRPML1(Transient Receptor Potential mucolipin-1)与IV型粘膜脂质沉积症相关。根据目前对TRP通道与自噬的研究结果来看,不同的TRP通道可通过不同的机制升高胞质[Ca~(2+)]i,这都与不同TRP通道蛋白在细胞内的特定分布有关,如TRPV(Transient receptor potential vanilloid)通道主要在细胞质膜或内质网膜上调控Ca~(2+),而TRPML则主要在溶酶体上发挥作用,但具体分子通路激活机制尚需进一步研究。     

选择性内质网自噬受体研究进展

内质网自噬是一种可以清除受损内质网的选择性自噬,其主要功能是参与内质网容量和质量的控制,维持细胞稳态。选择性内质网自噬由相关的受体蛋白介导,这些蛋白在疾病发生发展中可能起到重要靶点效应。本文对选择性内质网自噬的作用及其与疾病的关系加以综述,并且归纳总结了相关受体蛋白介导内质网自噬的研究进展,以期对研究内质网自噬相关疾病的发生机制、发展过程及其防治手段提供新的思路和切入点。     

植物ATG8结合蛋白

ATG8（自噬相关蛋白8）结合蛋白通过ATG8相互作用基序（ATG8 interaction motif,AIM）或泛素相互作用基序（ubiquitin interaction motif,UIM）与ATG8相互作用,在自噬、选择性自噬和非自噬过程中起关键作用。ATG8结合蛋白在酵母和哺乳动物研究中取得了巨大进展,但在植物领域仍然滞后。本文首先概括了植物ATG8蛋白结构及特征,其次,重点阐述了作为植物选择性自噬受体的ATG8结合蛋白的结构和功能,最后,总结了参与自噬小体闭合、转运和人工合成ATG8结合蛋白研究状况。本文结合最新研究,系统总结了目前发现的植物ATG8结合蛋白结构和功能,以期为植物选择性自噬和自噬的研究提供新思路。     

mTORC1信号通路调控细胞自噬的研究进展

蛋白激酶mTORC1主要感应细胞内的营养状态和细胞外的压力刺激,通过磷酸化众多下游底物蛋白,参与调控细胞的生长、增殖和代谢等过程.近年来的研究表明, m TORC1信号通路在细胞内的重要分解代谢过程——细胞自噬的调控中发挥主导作用.在细胞自噬过程的不同阶段发挥作用的多个蛋白陆续被鉴定为mTORC1的直接磷酸化底物,表明mTORC1在细胞自噬过程的不同阶段均发挥调控作用.以上作用机制让mTORC1精确而全面地控制细胞自噬的起始、终止和强度,进而帮助细胞更好地应对细胞内外环境的改变.本文将围绕mTORC1信号通路在细胞自噬调控中的主导作用综述近年来的相关研究进展.     

细胞自噬形成机制及其功能研究进展

自噬是真核细胞维持内环境稳态的一种内在平衡机制。现已发现,多种自噬相关蛋白质(autophagy related protein or Atg protein)参与自噬形成。其中,自噬相关蛋白1/Unc-51样激酶1(autophagy related 1/Unc-51-like kinase 1,Atg1/ULK1)蛋白酶复合物主要在自噬形成起始阶段发挥作用;自噬相关蛋白9·自噬相关蛋白2-自噬相关蛋白18(autophagy related 9·autophagy related 2-autophagy18,Atg9·Atg2-Atg18)复合物主要为自噬形成递送膜结构;自噬相关蛋白12(autophagy related 12,Atg12)和自噬相关蛋白5/微管相关蛋白1轻链3(autophagy-related 5/microtubule-associated protein 1light chain 3,Atg5/LC3)结合系统主要参与隔离膜的延伸和自噬体的成熟;而泡膜蛋白34-自噬相关蛋白6/Beclin1磷脂酰肌醇-3激酶复合物[vacuolar proteins sorting 34-autophagy related 6/Beclin 1phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase,Vps34-Atg6/Beclin1 PI(3)P]则可与不同物质结合,在自噬的起始和自噬体成熟过程中发挥重要作用。随着研究的深入,细胞自噬被认为可特异性识别底物进行降解,如线粒体自噬、噬脂、异体吞噬等。因此,自噬与多种疾病的发生发展密切相关,如神经系统疾病、肿瘤、心血管疾病、感染、代谢性疾病、特发性肺纤维化、肺动脉高压等疾病并参与衰老等生理过程。目前,一批以自噬为靶点的自噬调节剂正在临床试验阶段。     

线粒体自噬的研究进展

线粒体自噬(mitophagy)是指细胞通过自噬机制选择性清除多余或损伤线粒体的过程,对于线粒体质量控制以及细胞生存具有重要作用。在线粒体自噬的过程中,线粒体自噬受体FUNDCl、Nix、BNIP3,接头蛋白OPTN、NDP52以及去泛素化酶UPS30、UPS8等发挥了重要的调控作用。近年来,研究发现线粒体自噬与神经退行性疾病、脑损伤以及胶质瘤相关。因此,研究线粒体自噬的分子机制具有重要意义。本文就与哺乳动物相关的线粒体自噬分子机制及最新研究进展做一综述。     

TRIM proteins regulate autophagy: TRIM5 is a selective autophagy receptor mediating HIV-1 restriction

The tripartite motif protein family (TRIM) constitutes a class of immune-regulated proteins with antiviral, immune, cancer, and other properties reminiscent of those ascribed to autophagy. We show that TRIMs have dual roles in autophagy: as regulators and as cargo receptors. As regulators, TRIMs nucleate the core autophagy machinery by acting as platforms that assemble ULK1 and BECN1 into a functional complex in preparation for autophagy. TRIMs also act as novel selective autophagy receptors as exemplified by TRIM5/TRIM5α, a known HIV-1 restriction factor with a hitherto poorly defined mode of action. TRIM5 recognizes and targets HIV-1 for autophagic destruction. TRIM5 interactions with mammalian Atg8 proteins are required for this effector function. This establishes TRIM family members as regulators of autophagy, explains the antiretroviral mechanism of TRIM5, and defines a new basis for selective autophagy.     

TRIM proteins regulate autophagy: TRIM5 is a selective autophagy receptor mediating HIV-1 restriction

The tripartite motif protein family (TRIM) constitutes a class of immune-regulated proteins with antiviral, immune, cancer, and other properties reminiscent of those ascribed to autophagy. We show that TRIMs have dual roles in autophagy: as regulators and as cargo receptors. As regulators, TRIMs nucleate the core autophagy machinery by acting as platforms that assemble ULK1 and BECN1 into a functional complex in preparation for autophagy. TRIMs also act as novel selective autophagy receptors as exemplified by TRIM5/TRIM5α, a known HIV-1 restriction factor with a hitherto poorly defined mode of action. TRIM5 recognizes and targets HIV-1 for autophagic destruction. TRIM5 interactions with mammalian Atg8 proteins are required for this effector function. This establishes TRIM family members as regulators of autophagy, explains the antiretroviral mechanism of TRIM5, and defines a new basis for selective autophagy.     

Targeted regulation of FoxO1 in chondrocytes prevents age‐related osteoarthritis via autophagy mechanism

Autophagy is designated as a biological recycling process to maintain cellular homeostasis by the sequestration of damaged proteins and organelles in plasma and cargo delivery to lysosomes for degradation and reclamation. This organelle recycling process promotes chondrocyte homeostasis and has been previously implicated in osteoarthritis (OA). Autophagy is widely involved in regulating chondrocyte degeneration markers such as MMPs, ADAMSTs and Col10 in chondrocytes. The critical autophagy‐related (ATG) proteins have now been considered the protective factor against late‐onset OA. The current research field proposes that the autophagic pathway is closely related to chondrocyte activity. However, the mechanism is complex yet needs precise elaboration. This review concluded that FoxO1, a forkhead O family protein, which is a decisive mediator of autophagy, facilitates the pathological process of osteoarthritis. Diverse mechanisms regulate the activity of FoxO1 and promote the initiation of autophagy, including the prominent AMPK and Sirt‐2 cellular pathways. FoxO1 transactive is regulated by phosphorylation and acetylation processes, which modulates the downstream ATGs expression. Furthermore, FoxO1 induces autophagy by directly interacting with ATGs proteins, which control the formation of autophagosomes and lysosomes fusion. This review will discuss cutting‐edge evidence that the FoxO–autophagy pathway plays an essential regulator in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis.     

TRIM-directed selective autophagy regulates immune activation

Selectivity of autophagy is achieved by target recognition; however, the number of autophagy receptors identified so far is limited. In this study we demonstrate that a subset of tripartite motif (TRIM) proteins mediate selective autophagy of key regulators of inflammatory signaling. MEFV/TRIM20, and TRIM21 act as autophagic receptors recognizing their cognate targets and delivering them for autophagic degradation. MEFV recognizes the inflammasome components NLRP3, CASP1 and NLRP1, whereas TRIM21 specifically recognizes the activated, dimeric from of IRF3 inducing type I interferon gene expression. MEFV and TRIM21 have a second activity, whereby they act not only as receptors but also recruit and organize key components of autophagic machinery consisting of ULK1, BECN1, ATG16L1, and mammalian homologs of Atg8, with a preference for GABARAP. MEFV capacity to organize the autophagy apparatus is affected by common mutations causing familial Mediterranean fever. These findings reveal a general mode of action of TRIMs as autophagic receptor-regulators performing a highly-selective type of autophagy (precision autophagy), with MEFV specializing in the suppression of inflammasome and CASP1 activation engendering IL1B/interleukin-1β production and implicated in the form of cell death termed pyroptosis, whereas TRIM21 dampens type I interferon responses.     

Induction of autophagy during extracellular matrix detachment promotes cell survival

Autophagy has been proposed to promote cell death during lumen formation in three-dimensional mammary epithelial acini because numerous autophagic vacuoles are observed in the dying central cells during morphogenesis. Because these central cells die due to extracellular matrix (ECM) deprivation (anoikis), we have directly interrogated how matrix detachment regulates autophagy. Detachment induces autophagy in both nontumorigenic epithelial lines and in primary epithelial cells. RNA interference-mediated depletion of autophagy regulators (ATGs) inhibits detachment-induced autophagy, enhances apoptosis, and reduces clonogenic recovery after anoikis. Remarkably, matrix-detached cells still exhibit autophagy when apoptosis is blocked by Bcl-2 overexpression, and ATG depletion reduces the clonogenic survival of Bcl-2-expressing cells after detachment. Finally, stable reduction of ATG5 or ATG7 in MCF-10A acini enhances luminal apoptosis during morphogenesis and fails to elicit long-term luminal filling, even when combined with apoptotic inhibition mediated by Bcl-2 overexpression. Thus, autophagy promotes epithelial cell survival during anoikis, including detached cells harboring antiapoptotic lesions.     

Selective autophagy mediated by autophagic adapter proteins

Mounting evidence suggests that autophagy is a more selective process than originally anticipated. The discovery and characterization of autophagic adapters, like p62 and NBR1, has provided mechanistic insight into this process. p62 and NBR1 are both selectively degraded by autophagy and able to act as cargo receptors for degradation of ubiquitinated subtstrates. A direct interaction between these autophagic adapters and the autophagosomal marker protein LC3, mediated by a so-called LIR (LC3-interacting region) motif, their inherent ability to polymerize or aggregate as well as their ability to specifically recognize substrates are required for efficient selective autophagy. These three required features of autophagic cargo receptors are evolutionarily conserved and also employed in the yeast cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting (Cvt) pathway and in the degradation of P granules in C. elegans. Here, we review the mechanistic basis of selective autophagy in mammalian cells discussing the degradation of misfolded proteins, p62 bodies, aggresomes, mitochondria and invading bacteria. The emerging picture of selective autophagy affecting the regulation of cell signaling with consequences for oxidative stress responses, tumorigenesis and innate immunity is also addressed.     

Lipid droplet and early autophagosomal membrane targeting of Atg2A and Atg14L in human tumor cells

Autophagy is a lysosomal bulk degradation pathway for cytoplasmic cargo, such as long-lived proteins, lipids, and organelles. Induced upon nutrient starvation, autophagic degradation is accomplished by the concerted actions of autophagy-related (ATG) proteins. Here we demonstrate that two ATGs, human Atg2A and Atg14L, colocalize at cytoplasmic lipid droplets (LDs) and are functionally involved in controlling the number and size of LDs in human tumor cell lines. We show that Atg2A is targeted to cytoplasmic ADRP-positive LDs that migrate bidirectionally along microtubules. The LD localization of Atg2A was found to be independent of the autophagic status. Further, Atg2A colocalized with Atg14L under nutrient-rich conditions when autophagy was not induced. Upon nutrient starvation and dependent on phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate [PtdIns(3)P] generation, both Atg2A and Atg14L were also specifically targeted to endoplasmic reticulum-associated early autophagosomal membranes, marked by the PtdIns(3)P effectors double-FYVE containing protein 1 (DFCP1) and WD-repeat protein interacting with phosphoinositides 1 (WIPI-1), both of which function at the onset of autophagy. These data provide evidence for additional roles of Atg2A and Atg14L in the formation of early autophagosomal membranes and also in lipid metabolism.     

TRIM-mediated precision autophagy targets cytoplasmic regulators of innate immunity

The present paradigms of selective autophagy in mammalian cells cannot fully explain the specificity and selectivity of autophagic degradation. In this paper, we report that a subset of tripartite motif (TRIM) proteins act as specialized receptors for highly specific autophagy (precision autophagy) of key components of the inflammasome and type I interferon response systems. TRIM20 targets the inflammasome components, including NLRP3, NLRP1, and pro–caspase 1, for autophagic degradation, whereas TRIM21 targets IRF3. TRIM20 and TRIM21 directly bind their respective cargo and recruit autophagic machinery to execute degradation. The autophagic function of TRIM20 is affected by mutations associated with familial Mediterranean fever. These findings broaden the concept of TRIMs acting as autophagic receptor regulators executing precision autophagy of specific cytoplasmic targets. In the case of TRIM20 and TRIM21, precision autophagy controls the hub signaling machineries and key factors, inflammasome and type I interferon, directing cardinal innate immunity response systems in humans.     

The roles of autophagy in development and stress responses in Arabidopsis thaliana

Autophagy is a dynamic process that involves the recycling process of the degradation of intracellular materials. Over the past decade, our molecular and physiological understanding of plant autophagy has greatly been increased. Most essential autophagic machineries are conserved from yeast to plants. The roles that autophagy-related genes (ATGs) family play in the lifecycle of the Arabidopsis are proved to be similar to that in mammal. Autophagy is activated during certain stages of development, senescence or in response to starvation, or environmental stress in Arabidopsis. In the progression of autophagy, ATGs act as central signaling regulators and could develop sophisticated mechanisms to survive when plants are suffering unfavorable environments. It will facilitate further understanding of the molecular mechanisms of autophagy in plant. In this review, we will discuss recent advances in our understanding of autophagy in Arabidopsis, areas of controversy, and highlight potential future directions in autophagy research.     

A reporter cell system to monitor autophagy based on p62/SQSTM1

Macroautophagy (hereafter referred to as autophagy) is a catabolic pathway to isolate and transport cytosolic components to the lysosome for degradation. Recently, autophagy receptors, like p62/SQSTM1 and NBR1, which physically link autophagic cargo to ATG8/MAP1-LC3/GABARAP family members located on the forming autophagic membranes, have been identified. To identify conditions or compounds that affect autophagy cell systems that efficiently report on autophagic flux are required. Here we describe reporter cell systems based on induced expression of GFP-p62, GFP-NBR1 or GFP-LC3B. The degradation of the fusion proteins was followed after promoter shut off by flow cytometry of live cells. All three fusion proteins were degraded at a basal rate by autophagy. Surprisingly, the basal degradation rate varied for the three reporter fusion proteins. GFP-LC3B was the most stable protein. GFP-NBR1 was most efficiently degraded under basal conditions while degradation of GFP-p62 displayed the strongest response to amino acid starvation. GFP-p62 was found to perform best of the tested reporters. Single cell analysis of autophagic flux by flow cytometry allows estimates of heterogeneous cell populations. The feasibility of this approach was demonstrated using transient overexpression of a dominant negative ULK1 kinase and siRNA-mediated knock-down of LC3B to inhibit autophagic degradation of GFP-p62. The inducible GFP-p62 cell system allows quantification by several approaches and will be useful in screening for compounds or conditions that affect the rate of autophagy. Inducers of autophagy can be identified using rich medium whereas inhibitors are identified under starvation conditions.