An immunohistochemical study on the innervation of SP-IR nerves in the cerebral arteries of the bent-winged bat

The overall distribution of substance P (SP) immunoreactive (IR) nerves surrounding the cerebral arteries of the bent-winged bat were investigated immunohistochemically. In this microchiropteran species, the walls from the vertebral artery to the caudal part of the basilar artery have considerably well-developed plexuses of SP-IR nerves, whereas no demonstrable SP-IR fibers were found in the rostral part of the basilar artery, and in more rostrally located arteries the nerve supply was very sparse or occasionally lacking. This innervation pattern has not yet been established for the cerebral arterial systems of other mammals that have been studied under normal conditions, but it is very similar to the pattern of SP-IR innervation observed in the guinea pig and cat of which the trigeminal ganglia have been destroyed. From the combination of this and other immunohistochemical findings, it is suggested that SP-IR nerves innervating the vertebral and basilar arteries of the bent-winged bat originate from the upper cervical dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and enter the cranial cavity along the vertebral artery and through the meninges.     

Distribution and origin of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP)-immunoreactive,acetylcholinesterase-positive and adrenergic nerves of the cerebral arteries in the bent-winged bat (Mammalia: Chiroptera)

Summary The overall distribution and origins of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP)-immunoreactive (IR), acetylcholinesterase (AChE)-positive and adrenergic nerves in the walls of the cerebral arteries were investigated in the bent-winged bat. VIP-IR and AChE-positive nerves innervating the bat cerebral vasculature appear to arise mainly from VIP-IR and AChE-positive cell bodies within microganglia found in the nerve bundle accompanying the sympathetic nerve bundle within the tympanic cavity. These microganglia, as well as the nerve bundle containing them, do not emit catecholamine fluorescence, suggesting that they are of the cranial parasympathetic outflow, probably the facial or glossopharyngeal one. The axons from VIP-IR and AChE-positive microganglia run intermingled with sympathetic adrenergic nerves in the same thick fiber bundles, and reach the cranial cavity through the carotid canal. In addition, some of the VIP-IR fibers innervating the vertebro-basilar system, at least the basilar artery, originate from VIP-IR nerve cells located in the wall of this artery.The supply of VIP-IR fibers to the bat major cerebral arteries is the richest among mammals that have been studied, and differs from other mammals in that it is much greater in the vertebro-basilar system than in the internal carotid system: plexuses of VIP-IR nerves are particularly dense along the walls from the posterior ramus to posterior cerebral and basilar arteries. Small pial and intracerebral arteries of the vertebro-basilar system, especially those of the posterior cerebral artery which supply most parts of the diencephalon and cerebrum, are also richly innervated by peripheral VIP-IR fibers. This pattern corresponds well with the innervation pattern of adrenergic and AChE-positive nerves.     

A histochemical study of the innervation of the cerebral blood vessels in the domestic fowl

Summary Adrenergic and cholinergic nerves innervating the cerebral arteries of the domestic fowl were examined by specific histochemical techniques.The adrenergic nerve plexuses of the cerebral carotid system are markedly denser than those of other vertebrates observed by similar techniques. They form longitudinally elongated meshworks of fine fibres in the vascular wall of the arterial branches. Those innervating the vertebro-basilar system are less dense and more elongated, and, as the size of the artery diminishes, the fibres of the plexus become coarser. In the small pial and parenchymal arteries they are reduced to a few fibres running parallel to, or spiralling around the vascular axis.The cholinergic nerve plexuses are not as dense as the adrenergic system. The acetylcholinesterase activity is very weak, except in the plexuses innervating the cerebral carotid artery and the proximal portion of the anterior and posterior rami. In the vertebro-basilar system, a few thick nerve bundles run alongside the blood vessels of the vertebral and basilar arteries. Cholinergic nerves enter the cranial cavity along the internal carotid, the vertebral and possibly the cerebro-ethmoidal arteries.Intracerebral capillaries and some arterioles are not innervated with cholinergic and adrenergic fibres of peripheral origin, but with ones arising from parenchymal nerve cells.     

Structure and sympathetic innervation of the intracranial arteries in the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis)

Fluorescence histochemistry discloses that the carotid rete mirabile in the giraffe has a poor sympathetic innervation. In contrast, the efferent artery of the rete (internal carotid artery) and the cerebral arteries show moderate sympathetic innervation. A certain degree of regional variability was noted in which the rostral arteries (anterior and middle cerebral) receive more sympathetic nerves than the caudal (posterior communicating and basilar) arteries. The sympathetic nerves on the giraffe cerebral vessels may constitute part of a host of mechanisms by which regional blood flow to the brain is regulated. Conversely, the paucity of sympathetic innervation of the carotid rete mirabile may indicate that this structure does not play an active role in vasoconstrictor responses during postural changes of the head.     

A histochemical study of the innervation of cerebral blood vessels in the snake

Summary Dual innervation of snake cerebral blood vessels by adrenergic and cholinergic fibres was demonstrated with the use of histochemical methods. Although the nerve plexuses are somewhat less dense, the essential features of innervation of the blood vessels are similar to those of mammals with the exception that the adrenergic plexuses are more prominent than the cholinergic plexuses. The major arteries of the cerebral carotid system have a rich nerve supply. However, the innervation is less rich in the basilar and poor in the spinal (vertebral) arteries. Although the arteries supplying the right side of head are poorly developed, three pairs of arteries, cerebral carotids, ophthalmics and spinals, supply the snake brain. The carotids and ophthalmics are densely innervated and are accompanied by thick nerve bundles, suggesting that the nerves preferentially enter the skull along those arteries. Some parenchymal arterioles are also dually innervated. Connection between the brain parenchyma and intracerebral capillaries via both cholinergic and adrenergic fibres was observed. In addition cholinergic nerve fibres, connecting capillaries and the intramedullary nerve fibre bundles, were noticed. Capillary blood flow may be influenced by both adrenergic and cholinergic central neurons. The walls of capillaries also exhibit heavy acetylcholinesterase activity. This may indicate an important role for the capillary in the regulation of intracerebral blood flow.     

Neuropeptide Y and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide in cerebral arteries of the rat: relationships between innervation pattern and mechanical response

Possible relationships between the density of peptide innervation and the contractile response of rat cerebral arteries to exogenously applied neuropeptide Y (NPY) and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) were examined. The effects of NPY on membrane potential and reactivity of cerebral arteries to exogenous norepinephrine also were studied. In normally innervated arteries there was no apparent correlation between degree of innervation and response to NPY. Marked, prolonged tachyphylaxis to NPY and VIP was observed following brief exposure to these peptides. Surgical removal of the superior cervical ganglia or the sphenopalatine ganglia greatly reduced and, in some cases, eliminated NPY- or VIP-immunoreactive perivascular nerves from cerebral arteries. However, responses of denervated middle cerebral arteries to exogenous NPY or VIP were not different from responses of innervated arteries. Doses of NPY that induced maximal contraction caused no change in membrane potential of the middle cerebral artery. NPY also did not alter the response of cerebral arteries to exogenous norepinephrine. Finally, electrical stimulation of normal or denervated arteries caused only minor constrictor or dilator responses. These results do not support a substantial role for peptidergic perivascular nerves in regulation of pial arterial contractility in the rat.     

Proliferation of arteriovenous anastomoses in the developing rabbit ear is enhanced after denervation

The innervation of the rabbit ear vasculature by noradrenergic and substance P-immunoreactive (SP-IR) nerves was investigated in both young and adult animals. All vascular segments were supplied by both noradrenergic and SP-IR nerves. In the ear margins, the arteriovenous anastomoses (AVAs) were more densely innervated than other vessels. In general, the density of both noradrenergic and SP-IR nerves increased with age until 10-12 weeks postnatum. The ear vasculature was denervated in young rabbits to test whether the normal proliferation of AVAs in the growing ear was altered in the absence of nerves. Surgical resection of all auricular nerve trunks except the auricular branch of the auriculo-temporal nerve, and removal of the ipsilateral superior cervical ganglion in 10- to 12-day-old rabbits left the ear devoid of both noradrenergic and SP-IR nerves for at least four weeks. Repeated administration of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) to young rabbits produced degeneration of noradrenergic terminal axons, but preterminal nerve trunks survived. SP-IR nerves did not appear to be affected by 6-OHDA. These denervation regimes resulted in a 1.5- to 2-fold increase in the number of AVAs formed in the growing ear. Surgical denervation and 6-OHDA treatment also led to retarded growth of the media of the central ear artery, but this effect of 6-OHDA was probably not due to a specific action on vascular smooth muscle. Surgical resection of most of the dorsal auricular nerves in adult rabbits did not affect AVA density. Large differences in AVA density were apparent between groups of control animals from different parts of the country, or groups examined at different times of the year. These results demonstrate that the labile nature of AVAs in the rabbit ear can result in considerable variability in the absolute number of AVAs and suggest that both intrinsic and extrinsic factors may influence development of the microvasculature.     

A description of the upper thoracic autonomic nervous system in the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta)

The purpose of this study was to describe the autonomic innervation of the carotid sinus and heart in the rhesus monkey. Nine male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) and one male crab-eating macaque (M. fascicularis) were carefully dissected from the origin of the vagus nerves and superior cervical ganglia to the level of the fourth thoracic ganglion. The specimens were either freshly killed or obtained no later than 24 hours post mortem. The macaque monkeys were found to possess an innervation pattern that displayed features common to dog (connections between the vagus nerves and middle cervical ganglia), baboon (distinct cervical sympathetic and cervical vagal nerve trunks), and man (nerves projecting from the middle cervical and stellate ganglia to the heart). Distinct inferior cervical and first thoracic ganglia were never seen, but rather, large and well defined stellate ganglia were found. The macaque innervation pattern, when considered as a whole, most closely resembled the baboon.     

颈性眩晕中医证型与经颅超声脑动脉血流检测结果的相关性分析

摘要 目的：分析颈性眩晕中医证型与经颅超声脑动脉血流检测结果的相关性。方法：选取2021年5月-2023年5月收治颈性眩晕患者作为研究对象,根据不同中医证型分为痰湿中阻组、肝阳上亢组、肝肾阴虚组和气血亏虚组,每组各纳入20例;并另选取健康体检患者30例作为对照组,均给予多普勒超声检查。分析不同中医证型者与对照组者多普勒超声检查特征与脑动脉血流变化[左右椎动脉、基底动脉及大脑中动脉收缩期峰值血流速度（VS）、平均血流速度(Vm)、舒张期峰值血流速度(Vd)及搏动指数(PI)]。结果：痰湿中阻组、肝肾阴虚组和气血亏虚组左右椎动脉、基底动脉及大脑中动脉VS均低于对照组（P＜0.05）;肝阳上亢组左右椎动脉、基底动脉及大脑中动脉VS均高于对照组（P＜0.05）;不同中医证型组间VS比较,肝阳上亢组＞痰湿中阻组＞肝肾阴虚组＞气血亏虚组;痰湿中阻组左右椎动脉、基底动脉均高于对照组（P＜0.05）,大脑中动脉Vm均低于对照组（P＜0.05）;肝阳上亢组左右椎动脉、基底动脉及大脑中动脉Vm均高于对照组（P＜0.05）;肝肾阴虚组左右椎动脉、基底动脉及大脑中动脉Vm均低于对照组（P＜0.05）;气血亏虚组大脑中动脉Vm均低于对照组（P＜0.05）,左右椎动脉、基底动脉Vm和对照组无显著性差异（P>0.05）;不同中医证型组间Vm比较,肝阳上亢组＞痰湿中阻组＞气血亏虚组＞肝肾阴虚组;痰湿中阻组左右椎动脉、基底动脉Vd均低于对照组（P＜0.05）,大脑中动脉Vd均高于对照组（P＜0.05）;肝阳上亢组左右椎动脉、基底动脉及大脑中动脉Vd均低于对照组（P＜0.05）;肝肾阴虚组左右椎动脉及大脑中动脉Vd均低于对照组（P＜0.05）,基底动脉Vd和对照组无差异（P＞0.05）;气血亏虚组左右椎动脉Vd均低于对照组（P＜0.05）,基底动脉Vd和对照组无差异（P＞0.05）,大脑中动脉Vd均高于对照组（P＜0.05）;不同中医证型组间Vd比较,气血亏虚组＞痰湿中阻组＞肝肾阴虚组＞肝阳上亢组;痰湿中阻组和气血亏虚组左右椎动脉、基底动脉及大脑中动脉PI均低于对照组（P＜0.05）;肝阳上亢组和肝肾阴虚组左右椎动脉、基底动脉及大脑中动脉PI均高于对照组（P＜0.05）;不同中医证型组间PI比较,肝阳上亢组＞肝肾阴虚组＞痰湿中阻组＞气血亏虚组。结论：不同中医证型的眩晕患者会出现不同程度脑动脉血流动力学异常,且不同组间存在差异,通过经颅多普勒超声检查,可以对眩晕中医证型提供参考价值。     

Nerves and nerve plexuses of the human vertebral column

The origin, distribution, and termination pattern of nerves supplying the vertebral column and its associated structures have been studied in the human fetus by means of an acetylcholinesterase whole-mount method. The vertebral column is surrounded by ventral and dorsal nerve plexuses which are interconnected. The ventral nerve plexus consists of the nerve plexus associated with the anterior longitudinal ligament. This longitudinally oriented nerve plexus has a bilateral supply from many small branches of the sympathetic trunk, rami communicantes, and perivascular nerve plexuses of segmental arteries. In the thoracic region, the ventral nerve plexus also is connected to the nerve plexuses of costovertebral joints. The dorsal nerve plexus is made up of the nerve plexus associated with the posterior longitudinal ligament. This nerve plexus is more irregular and receives contributions only from the sinu-vertebral nerves. The sinu-vertebral nerves originate from the rami communicantes and, in the cervical region, also from the nerve plexus of the vertebral artery. Thick and thin sinu-vertebral nerves are found. Most frequently three types of thick sinu-vertebral nerves are observed, i.e., ascending, descending, or dichotomizing ones. Finally, the distribution of the branches of the ventral and dorsal nerve plexuses and of the sinu-vertebral nerves is described.     

Adrenergic and cholinergic innervation of rat cerebral arteries

Summary A consecutive demonstration of both aminergic and cholinergic nerves of rat cerebral arteries was carried out on whole mount preparations. For demonstration of aminergic nerves the glyoxylic acid method was used, while for cholinergic nerves Karnovsky's technique was utilized consecutively. This procedure provided a highly sensitive and reproducible demonstration of the two systems on the same specimen. The results obtained were as follows: 1) Aminergic and cholinergic nerves were distributed densely in the proximal portions of the major cerebral arteries examined. They were dense in the arteries of the anterior circulation and sparse in the posterior circulation. Each nerve had two different patterns, i.e. circular and longitudinal. Both circular and longitudinal patterns were observed in the proximal portions of the arteries, while in the distal portions, longitudinal fibres were predominantly present. 2) Superior cervical ganglionectomy produced no change in cholinergic nerve distribution, while it caused decreased density of aminergic nerves on the ipsilateral side on the arteries of the anterior circulation. The contralateral anterior cerebral arteries were partially affected. Bilateral sympathectomies abolished aminergic nerves in all arteries except the vertebral artery.     

The cardiac innervation of a marsupial heterotherm,the fat-tailed dunnart (Sminthopsis crassicaudata)

This study investigated the pattern of autonomic innervation of the heart of the fat-tailed dunnart (Sminthopsis crassicaudata) using isolated cardiac preparations. While the pattern of autonomic innervation of the atria was consistent with that found in other mammals, the ventricles displayed an unusual pattern of mammalian cardiac innervation. Transmural stimulation of the intramural nerves of isolated right ventricular preparations caused a decrease in the force of contraction of 46.8+/-3.2% followed by a rebound increase in the force of contraction beyond basal levels of 40.9+/-6.9%. These responses could be blocked independently by the application of the muscarinic receptor antagonist hyoscine and beta-adrenoreceptor antagonist propranolol respectively and could also be mimicked by the application of the agonists acetylcholine (Ach) and noradrenaline (NA). These findings indicated the presence of a functional cholinergic innervation of the ventricles that was capable of reducing the force of contraction below basal levels. This pattern of innervation has only been found previously in one other mammal, the bent-winged bat (Miniopterus schreibersii). Given that both of these species are heterotherms, it is possible that such a pattern of innervation may relate to the control of cardiac output during torpor. These findings are the first that demonstrate the homogeneity of a physiological control mechanism in a so-called 'shallow, daily torpidator' (S. crassicaudata) and a 'deep hibernator' (M. schreibersii) that is absent in mammalian homeotherms. These findings are consistent with recent work suggesting that there may be little difference between these types of heterothermy.     

Drainage of the prelymphatics of the brain via the adventitia of the vertebral artery

Carbon particles injected into the cortex of the cerebellum of the rat were found in the Virchow-Robin spaces of the adjacent capillaries, and in the adventitia of the cerebellar artery, basilar artery and vertebral artery--both inside and outside the skull. They were also found in some portions of the deeper cervical lymph nodes. However, while tracers injected into the cerebral hemispheres are drained via the tissue channels in the adventitia of the internal carotid arteries, tracers injected into the cerebellar hemispheres are drained via those of the vertebral arteries.     

Noradrenergic and cholinergic nerves in the uterus of the Japanese long-fingered bat,Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus,change with reproductive cycle

The pattern of uterine innervation by noradrenergic (NA) and acetylcholinesterase-positive (AChE) nerves in different reproductive stages of the adult Japanese long-fingered bats were investigated histochemically and immunohistochemically. In the non-pregnant bat, the uterine horn was supplied with abundant NA and AChE nerves. These two types of nerves were closely associated with the uterine arteries and myometrial smooth muscles. In the pregnant bat, NA and AChE nerves supplying the uterus did not degenerate much during hibernating period, but reduced markedly after arousal. In the postpartum bat, the density of nerves recovered progressively. The significant change in the innervation pattern of uterine NA and AChE nerves in the pregnant bats under and after hibernation, and in the postpartum bat must be considered in relation to the adrenergic and cholinergic controlling mechanisms on the uterine function that is matched for the unique reproductive cycle of this bat.     

Mathematical models of the flow in the basilar artery

The flow in the basilar artery arises from the merging of the flows from the two vertebral arteries. This study deals with the question whether a parabolic (Poiseuille) profile will have been established before the basilar artery divides into both posterior cerebral arteries. The inlet length (that is, the downstream distance needed for the flow to become approximately equal to the limiting Poiseuille flow) and velocity profiles have been computed from two- and three-dimensional mathematical models in which flow pulsatility and vessel wall distensibility have been neglected and the complex geometry of the junction has been taken into account in a simplified form. The results show that the flow at the end of the basilar artery is far from being parabolic and that an asymmetry in the entrance flow will be carried along towards the end of the basilar artery, thus affecting flows in the circle of Willis.     

Comparative neurohistological observations on the intrinsic innervation of pancreatic artery (blood vessel) in the representative of bird and mammal

The present investigation was undertaken for the study of the comparative neurohistological observations of pancreatic-Artery (blood vessel) in Gallus domesticus (white leghorn) and Suncus murinus (Indian musk shrew) by cholinesterase technique. In Gallus, the innervation of arteries (blood vessel) was by a good number of non-myelinated nerevs, which formed the periarterial plexus in participation with the postganglionic fibres at one end and the fibres of the nerve cells of the other end. In Suncus, the periarterial and AChE-positive ganglia were arranged in chain-like fashion on the periphery of the artery. Periarterial plexus was formed by tortuous, myelinated nerves and the nerve fibres of the ganglia.     

Neurokinin A in cerebral vessels: characterization, localization and effects in vitro

Nerve fibres displaying neurokinin A (NKA)-immunoreactivity (IR) were seen in trigeminal nerve cell bodies and around cerebral blood vessels. NKA-positive fibres had the same general distribution as those displaying substance P (SP)-IR. Double or sequential immunostaining revealed coexistence of NKA- and SP-IR in a population of small nerve cell bodies in the trigeminal ganglion and in perivascular nerve fibres of brain vessels; both tachykinins were also noted to coexist with calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)-IR. The presence of NKA- and SP-IR in cerebral vessels from guinea pig was verified by high-performance liquid chromatography and radioimmunochemistry. The levels NKA-IR were higher than those of SP-IR in cerebral vessels of rat, guinea pig and rabbit. In cat, pig, cow and human brain vessels, the levels of NKA- and SP-IR were equal. Major cerebral vessels at the base of the brain contained higher levels of NKA- and SP-IR than pial vessels on the cerebral convexities. Only low levels of NKA-IR and SP-IR were measured in choroid plexus and dura mater. Precontracted isolated arterial segments of middle cerebral (cat), basilar (rabbit, guinea pig and rat) and pial arteries (man) relaxed following the in vitro administration of NKA and SP. The responses occurred in the same concentration range; the IC50 value for NKA was, however, about 10 times higher than that for SP, while the maximum relaxation was equal. In basilar arteries from guinea pig, the peptides NKA, SP and CGRP all induced strong and potent relaxations. There was no evidence that one of the peptides might potentiate the relaxant effects in vitro of another. The present data suggest that NKA, SP and CGRP are costored and can be released together and cooperate in the mediation of vascular reactions in response to activation of the trigemino-cerebrovascular pathway.     

Causes of variations in the pathway of the basilar and vertebral arteries

Artery loops at the root exit zones of cerebral nerves are regarded as causes of certain diseases, e.g. trigeminal neuralgia or hemifacial spasm. The factors, which may cause such loops and displacements of arteries, however, are still not known sufficiently. In order to find out more about such causes, 60 corpses were examined. We recorded the variations in the positions of vertebral and basilar arteries and correlated them with the respective age at the time of death. We found that those showing atypical artery positions and loops were generally of older age. We further examined possible influences of blood flow factors on variations of artery positions. Our sample indicated such influence of flow factors on displacements of basilar artery, but they seemed to be of lesser importance than the effect of ageing.     

Adrenergic and cholinergic components of the innervation of the arteries of the base of the bird brain

By means of Falck's and Koelle's methods adrenergic and cholinergic structures were studied in the arteries in the cerebral basis of blue rock pigeons and of hens, white leghorn stock. The number of nerve transmitters was estimated per 1 mm2 of the vessel surface. The arteries of the basis in pigeon brain are surrounded with developed adrenergic and cholinergic nerve plexuses, their density decreasing in the following order: nasal branch of the internal carotid artery, middle, nasal cerebral and basilar arteries. A little more cholinergic transmitters occur on the middle cerebral artery, while on the other vessels, concentration of cholinergic and adrenergic fibers is equal. In hens, the density in the arrangement of adrenergic nerve transmitters is higher in the nasal branch of the internal carotid and in the nasal cerebral arteries than in the basilar artery. At the same time, chromaffin cells forming numerous conglomerations in some places are found on the latter. In pigeons, the density of adrenergic fibers arrangement on the arteries of the cerebral basis is higher than in hens.     

Distribution and origins of VIP-immunoreactive nerves in the cephalic circulation of the cat

VIP-immunoreactive (IR) nerves were visualized in whole mounts and sections of cephalic arteries and cranial nerves of cats with indirect immunofluorescence. Perivascular VIP-IR nerves were very widely distributed in arteries and arterioles supplying glands, muscles and mucous membranes of the face. Within the cerebral circulation, perivascular VIP-IR nerves were most abundant in the Circle of Willis and the proximal portions of the major cerebral arteries and their proximal branches supplying the rostral brain stem and ventral areas of the cerebral cortex. VIP-IR nerves were absent from arterial branches supplying the posterior brain stem, cerebellum and dorsal cerebral cortex. Cerebral perivascular VIP-IR nerves probably arise from VIP-IR perikarya within microganglia found in the cavernous plexus and external rete. Extracerebral perivascular VIP-IR nerves probably arise from VIP-IR perikarya in microganglia associated with the tympanic plexus, chorda tympani, lingual nerve and Vidian nerve as well as from cells in the otic, sphenopalatine, submandibular and sublingual ganglia. It seems likely, therefore, that each major segment of the cephalic circulation is supplied by local VIP-IR neurons.