The Hydrobia ulvae-Maritrema subdolum association: cercarial emergence controlled by host activity

The release of Maritrema subdolum cercariae (Digenea: Microphallidae) from the marine mud snail Hydrobia ulvae is significantly affected by temperature, salinity, light and exudates from the second intermediate amphipod host. Based on (i) previously published data on temperature-salinity dependent H. ulvae activity, (ii) new experimental data on H. ulvae activity in light and darkness as well as in the presence and absence of host exudates, and (iii) the cercarial emergence rate from free moving snails and snails prevented from crawling, the present analysis indicates that emergence of M. subdolum larvae is regulated mainly by host activity as the ultimate factor for release. The adaptive significance of such an emergence strategy is emphasized.     

Effects of atrazine on cercarial longevity, activity, and infectivity

Susceptibility of free-living infective stages of parasites to contaminants is relatively understudied compared with independent effects on measures of host health or immunity, but may be important in affecting prevalence and intensity of parasite infections. We investigated whether atrazine, an herbicide commonly used in North America, affected the cercariae of 4 different species of digenetic trematodes, and found that effects of atrazine concentration on mortality and activity of cercariae varied among species. Mortality of Echinostoma trivolvis increased in a 200 microg/L atrazine solution, and a species of Alaria showed both decreased activity and increased mortality. We also examined whether the ability of E. trivolvis to infect the second intermediate host, larval amphibians, was compromised by atrazine exposure. Longevity and prevalence of E. trivolvis cercariae was affected at 200 microg/L atrazine, whereas intensity of infection in Rana clamitans tadpoles was reduced at both 20 microg/L and 200 microg/L atrazine. Our results indicate that the viability of cercariae of some species is compromised by exposure to atrazine, emphasizing the importance of considering the influence of contaminants on free-living stages of parasites in addressing how environmental degradation may relate to host parasitism.     

Effect of low temperature on emergence, fecundity, longevity and host-feeding by Trichogramma brassicae

The occurrence of sub-optimal temperatures during development of immature parasitoids can have important consequences on adult fitness. We investigated the impact of different regimes of low temperature on emergence, differential mortality, longevity and fecundity in Trichogramma brassicae Bezdenko (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae). The host-feeding behaviour of adult females was also measured as an indicator of energy reserve at emergence. Acclimation of 30 days at 10 °C or 24 days at 13 °C allowed T. brassicae immatures to develop with a lower mortality than those exposed directly at 5 °C. Longevity and fecundity of females decreased at a lower rate with acclimation at 10 °C suggesting that acclimation at 13 °C may have depleted the energy reserves of individuals more than acclimation at 10 °C. Short photoperiod exposure during the maternal generation had no effect on progeny’s fitness. We found no difference among the treatments in females’ host-feeding behaviours, in differential mortality at emergence, in female’s mobility and in F1 sex ratio.     

The influence of hosts, temperature and food sources on the longevity of Trichogramma platneri

Feeding experiments were conducted with Trichogramma platneri Nagarkatti (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) reared from the Angoumois grain moth, Sitotroga cerealella (Oliver) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). T. platneri provisioned with host eggs do not live any longer than T. platneri without host eggs. Longevity of T. platneri is inversely related to temperature declining from 53 days at 10 °C to 3 days at 35 °C for honey-fed parasitoids and from 9 days at 10 °C to 1 day at 35 °C for unfed parasitoids. Sugar sources are necessary to prolong longevity of T. platneri, but a source of amino acid did not promote longevity. Honey solutions greater than 10%, and 43% fructose and sucrose solutions increased longevity 10–13 fold to 15–20 days in comparison to water when fed daily to T. platneri. Parasitoids fed only at the onset of the trial had greater longevity than unfed parasitoids but had a shorter longevity than parasitoids fed daily, due to the evaporation of the sugar solutions and consumption of the honey. Aphid honeydew is a suitable field-available sugar source supporting longevity up to 10 days, but is not as good as other sugar sources. Stabilizing additives did not reduce evaporation of a dilute sugar solution nor prolong longevity of T. platneri. Simulating a daily dew fall by misting vials, to redissolve the crystallized food residues left after providing food at the onset of the trial, failed to increase parasitoid longevity.     

温度、盐度、光照对蜈蚣藻丝状体生长的影响

为了研究蜈蚣藻丝状体在不同的盐度、温度、光照强度和光照周期下的生长特征,分别观察比较了5个盐度(18~46)、5个温度(10℃~30℃)、6个光照强度(500 lx~5500 lx)和6个光照周期(0L∶24D-24L∶0D)培养条件下蜈蚣藻丝状体增重量的变化。结果表明:温度实验中以20℃条件下,蜈蚣藻丝状体的相对增重率最大,为124.8%;盐度实验中以32盐度下,蜈蚣藻丝状体的相对增重率最高,为68.3%;光照强度以2500 lx条件为最佳,蜈蚣藻丝状体的相对增重率最高,为88.2%;光照周期以24L∶0D全光照条件下生长最快,蜈蚣藻丝状体的相对增重率达到197.3%。由此可见,在温度为20℃,盐度为32,光照强度为2500 lx,24 h光照的条件下,蜈蚣藻丝状体长势最好,是培育蜈蚣藻的最佳条件。     

The photosynthesis of Dunaliella parva Lerche as a function of temperature,light and salinity

The photosynthetic behaviour of Dunaliella parva Lerche from the athalassic lagoon of Fuente de Piedra (Málaga, Southern Spain) was studied experimentally at three NaCl concentrations (1, 2 and 3 M), five temperatures (15, 23, 31, 38 and 42°C) and nine different irradiances between 82 and 891 mol m^–2 s^–1. Results are analyzed to define the best growing conditions for the algae. D. parva shows the highest photosynthetic rates at a NaCl molarity of 2 M, under a moderate light intensity (600 mol m^–2 s^–1) at 31°C. Above this light intensity a clear photoinhibition of the photosynthesis was found at 2 M and 3 M of NaCl. D. parva is a halotolerant and a thermoresistant species as evidenced by its net photosynthesis rate and positive values of oxygen evolution at 42°C.Two methods for modelling photosynthesis vs. irradiance curves are discussed. The first is a single model, based on third-order polynomial equations, and the second is double model, based on hyperbolical Michaelis-Menten type functions and negative exponential to define photoinhibition.     

The influence of temperature on host orientation by the alfalfa weevil, Hypera postica

The effect of temperature on the kinetic host orientation movements of mature adult alfalfa weevils, Hypera postica (Gyll.), was determined by mapping the movements of individual weevils in a closed arena in which the host odor source was just out of their reach. A reduced temperature resulted in a general reduction in activity, but an increase in the proportional efficiency of the kinetic orientation mechanism.In a test to determine the temperature range at which movement to the host will occur, mature adult weevils were confined in an arena with a small section of alfalfa stem at temperatures from 2° to 50°. A relatively normal response occurred between 15° and 40°. Below 5° movement to the food was negligible. The peak response in the normal range occurred about 20°–25°. A test of the mortality caused at 50° was conducted. The difference between published lethal temperatures and the results of this test are explained on the basis of insect age and maturity.

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Zusammenfassung Die Wirkung der Temperatur auf kinetische Orientierungsbewegungen des Luzernekäfers, Hypera postica, zum Wirt wurde durch Aufzeichnung der Bewegungen einzelner Käfer in einer geschlossenen Arena bestimmt, in welcher die Duftquelle eben außerhalb ihres Bereichs lag. Niedere Temperatur (10°) ergab ein geringeres Aktivitätsniveau sowohl hinsichtlich der durchlaufenen Strecken wie auch der Zahl der Wendungen als 20°. Trotz des herabgesetzten Aktivitätsniveaus war die proportionale kinetische Reaktion auf den Wirtspflanzenduft bei 10° erhöht. Verglichen mit der Aktivität der Käfer bei Abwesenheit der Nahrung, war bei Anwesenheit von Nahrung die durchlaufene Strecke bei 10° um 48.5% geringer, während sie bei 20° um 11,6% niedriger lag. Beim Vorhandensein von Nahrung stieg die Anzahl der Hinwendungen zur Nahrung bei 10° um 125%, bei 20° um 115%. Die Senkung der Temperatur ergab also nicht nur eine Verminderung der Aktivität, sondern auch eine Zunahme der relativen Leistungsfähigkeit des Orientierungsmechanismus.In einem Versuch zur Feststellung des Temperaturbereichs, in welchem Bewegungen zum Wirt hin auftreten, wurden erwachsene Käfer bei Temperaturen zwischen 2° und 50° mit einem kleinen Stück Luzerne in eine kleine Arena gebracht. Zwischen 15° und 40° erfolgte eine relativ normale Reaktion. Unter 5° waren kaum Bewegungen zur Nahrung hin festzustellen. Maximale Reaktionen traten normalerweise zwischen 20° und 25° auf. Die Mortalität bei 50° wurde untersucht. Sie betrug 24 Stunden nach einer 30 Minuten dauernden Exposition (in 50°) bei 15% rel. Luftfeuchtigkeit 8%, bei 50% rel. Luftfeuchtigkeit 16%. Bei einer Expositionszeit von 1 Stunde lagen die entsprechenden Werte bei 64 bzw. 72%. Die Differenz der Mortalitäten der beiden Expositionszeiten war signifikant (P<0,01), die der verschiedenen Luftfeuchtigkeitsgrade nicht. Die Unterschiede zwischen den für die Luzernekäfer bereits beschriebenen Letaltemperaturen (LT₅₀ für eine Exposition von 2 Minuten in 48,8°) und den Ergebnissen des vorliegenden Versuchs werden mit dem Alter und dem Reifegrad der Käfer erklärt.

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This research was supported in part by U.S.D.A. Grant No. 12-14-100-8032(33).

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The senior author was a Polish Exchange Fellow sponsored in part by the United Brethren Church     

光照、温度对纵坑切梢小蠹起飞行为的影响

纵坑切梢小蠹有明显的趋光性。在光照为 1～ 4 0 0 lx范围内 ,趋光性随光照强度提高而增强。完全黑暗条件下 ,蠹虫起飞量极少。在光照 10 0 0 lx,温度 2 5℃下 ,蠹虫起飞率达 77.7%。研究认为 ,温度和光照是纵坑切梢小蠹起飞的重要环境因素     

The influence of temperature and salinity on energy partitioning in the marine nematode Diplolaimelloides bruciei

Summary Measurements of population growth, generation time, fecundity and respiration in laboratory culture have been made, in relation to temperature and salinity, for the nematode Diplolaimelloides bruciei Hopper, a species normally associated with decayed material of the marsh grass Spartina. The intrinsic rate of increase (r) is high: it is related to temperature between 5° and 25°C by a sigmoid function which is steepest between 10° and 15°C, and is maximum at 26 salinity. Generation time is related to temperature by a power function and is shortest at 26 salinity. The effect of temperature on generation time is consistent with other data for marine nematodes, and the steep slope of r against temperature is largely due to the marked effect of temperature on fecundity. A sex ratio of 2:1 in favour of males is maintained regardless of culture conditions or population density. Respiration increases exponentially with temperature between 5° and 25°C, with a very high Q₁₀ (3.94), but is not affected by salinity. At 30°C respiration is no higher than at 25°C.A high and relatively stable production efficiency (P/A) is maintained between 10 and 30°C with a maximum of 87% at 15°C; there is a stable reproductive effort (Pr/A) of about 10%. At 5°C both these ratios are zero. Data for the harpacticoid copepod Tachidius discipes, derived from the literature, show that this too has a high and stable production efficiency, which may be a characteristic of meiofaunal species in general, but in this species efficiency is relatively high at 5°C. Many features of the energy balance in D. bruciei can be related to an opportunistic mode of life.     

The influence of temperature on light enhanced glycoalkaloid synthesis in potato

The influence of temperature on total glycoalkaloid (TGA) synthesis in tubers exposed to light (250 jumol m“² s”² PAR, Photosynthetically Active Radiation) or dark environments for 96 h was examined in three potato cultivars. Following 96 h light or dark the tubers were stored without light at 5°C or 24°C and TGA concentrations monitored over the subsequent 30 and 90 days. Exposure to light and cultivar were found to be major factors influencing TGA concentrations; temperature had no significant effect. TGA content in illuminated tubers of cvs ‘Pentland Hawk’ and ‘Kerrs Pink’ were significantly higher (P < 0.01) compared with tubers placed in the dark. TGA concentrations in cv. ‘Desiree’ increased significantly only following exposure to light at low temperatures (P < 0.05). Removal of tubers from storage at 5°C and immediate illumination at 24°C altered the ratio of glycoalkaloids in cvs ‘Pentland Hawk’ and ‘Kerrs Pink’. Regardless of cultivar and storage temperature TGA concentrations were higher at the end of the storage period compared with initial TGA concentrations. During storage TGA concentrations fluctuated widely and gradual accumulation of glycoalkaloids with time was rarely demonstrated except in cv. ‘Desiree’. Tubers stored at 24°C accumulated higher TGA concentrations than those stored at 5°C in cv. ‘Kerrs Pink’ but not in cvs ‘Pentland Hawk’ and ‘Desiree’. Tubers of cv. ‘Kerrs Pink’ exposed to light prior to storage accumulated glycoalkaloids more rapidly than unexposed tubers during storage at 24°C and occasionally at 5°C. Light enhanced glycoalkaloids are not degraded over time.     

Lipid content in 19 brackish and marine microalgae: influence of growth phase, salinity and temperature

Algal lipids provide essential fatty acids for higher trophic levels in the marine food web, and understanding the fatty acid composition in phytoplankton is critical for evaluating its value as a diet. Nineteen microalgal species, mainly originating from the Baltic Sea, covering major algal classes were grown in different growth conditions. Samples were taken during both the exponential and stationary growth phases and analysed regarding their fatty acid methyl esters and free fatty acids. Our results show that across all screened species, total fatty acids increased significantly from exponential to stationary growth phase. Furthermore, it was observed that warm-water species contained more lipids and differed in their lipid profile as compared with the cold-water species. Brackish water species also showed a slightly higher lipid content than the marine species, but their lipid profile was not significantly different. Plotting changes in lipids against changes in cell nitrogen revealed a significant dependency between decrease in cell nitrogen and increase in lipids across all tested species.     

Life history ofAphis gossypii on cucumber: influence of temperature, host plant and parasitism

Life table data forAphis gossypii Glover (Homoptera: Aphididae), an important pest in glasshouse cucumber crops, were studied at 20, 25 and 30°C on two cucumber cultivars (Cucumis sativus L.) in controlled climate cabinets. The development time on the cucumber cv. ‘Sporu’ ranged from 4.8 days at 20°C to 3.2 days at 30°C. Immature mortality was approximately 20% and did not differ between temperatures. Most mortality occurred during the first instar. Reproduction periods did not differ among temperatures, but at 25 and 30°C more nymphs were produced (65.9 and 69.8 nymphs/♀, respectively) than at 20°C (59,9 nymphs/♀) because of a higher daily reproduction. Intrinsic rate of increase was greatest at 25°C (r _m =0.556 day⁻¹). At 20 and 30°C the intrinsic rate of increase was 0.426 and 0.510, respectively. On cv. ‘Aramon’, the development time ofA. gossypii was approximately 20% longer at all temperatures. Immature mortality did not differ between the two cultivars. The intrinsic rate of increase on cv. ‘Aramon’ was 15% smaller than on cv. ‘Sporu’. The use of cucumber cultivars partially resistant to aphids is discussed in relation to biological control of cotton aphid in glasshouses. Development time and immature mortality on leaves of the middle and upper leaf layer of glasshouse grown cucumber plants (cv. ‘Aramon’) were comparable to development in the controlled climate cabinets. On the lower leaves immature mortality was much higher (approximately 82%) than on leaves of the middle (24.0%) and upper leaf layer (24.5%). Reproduction was less on the lower leaf layer (45.9, 70.5 and 70.1 nymphs/♀ on leaves of the lower, middle and upper leaf layer, respectively). Aphids, successfully parasitized byAphidius colemani Viereck (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) only reproduced when they were parasitized after the third instar. Fecundity was 0.1 to 0.9 and 10.5 to 13.3 nymphs/♀ for aphids parasitized in the fourth instar or as adults, respectively. Reproduction of aphids that were stung but survived the attack was lower than for aphids not stung. Average longevity of these aphids was equal to the longevity of aphids not stung byA. colemani.     

Interactions between size and temperature influence fecundity and longevity of a tortricid moth,Zeiraphera canadensis

Females of Zeiraphera canadensis Mut. & Free., the spruce bud moth, were reared in the laboratory at constant and alternating temperatures, and in an outdoor insectary, to (1) determine the effects of temperature, age and size on several reproductive parameters and, (2) to test the hypothesis that body size-temperature interactions influence longevity and realized fecundity. Egg maturation was linearly related to age and large moths developed eggs at a higher rate than small ones. Mcan lifetime oviposition rate reached a maximum and remained stable at temperatures 20° C while the mean lifetime rate of egg maturation increased linearly with temperature, indicating that higher temperatures adversely affect oviposition. The production of nonviable eggs increased with age but also with temperature, suggesting high temperature (25° C) reduces egg quality and/or hinders fertilization. The realized fecundity and longevity of females reared under an alternating temperature regime (mean 20° C) was significantly less than that of females reared at constant 20° C. Similar realized fecundity, longevity and mean lifetime oviposition rates for females reared at temperatures alternating between 10 and 25° C (mean 20° C) and those at constant 25° C reflected the inability of females to recover from elevated diurnal temperatures. Longevity was positively related to female body size at constant 15 and 20° C but the relationships were negative for moths exposed to diurnal temperatures equal to or exceeding 25° C. Due to the reduced longevity of large moths at high temperatures, linear regressions between size and realized fecundity were only significant at constant temperatures 20° C. At higher temperatures, the size-fecundity relationship became curvilinear as a result of the diminished reproductive output of large individuals. Reduced fecundity and longevity of large females at high temperatures may have been due to elevated internal temperatures of large-bodied moths. Large females in a controlled-environment chamber maintained at 25° C developed an internal temperature excess (i.e. temperature above ambient) of nearly 2° C while small-bodied females exceeded ambient by only 0.3° C. However, when held at 20° C, the temperature excess of large-bodied moths was much less than 1° C and small-bodied females did not differ from ambient. Such interactions between temperature and body size suggest that there should be stabilizing selection toward moderate-sized individuals and may explain the absence of size-related effects on fecundity and longevity previously reported for several other lepidopterans.     

Germination response to temperature,salinity, light and depth of sowing of ten tropical dune species

This study describes the germination responses of ten tropical dune species to several factors to which their seeds are exposed in the field. Species studied were: three sand dune endemics (Amaranthus greggii, Palafoxia lindenii, and Trachypogon gouini), three pantropical coastal species (Sesuvium portulacastrum, Sporobolus virginicus and Ipomoea stolonifera) and four cosmopolitan grasses also found inland (Panicum repens, Panicum maximum, Pappophorum vaginatum and Andropogon glomeratus). Six species germinated when exposed to different constant temperatures. Four required temperature fluctuation (S. portulacastrum, P. lindenii, S. virginicus, P. repens). Light promoted germination of three species (S. Portulacastrum, P. vaginatum, P. lindenii). Species varied in their degree of sensitivity to salinity. Seeds of T. gouini, I. stolonifera, S. portulacastrum, P. repens, P. Maximum and P. vaginatum were able to germinate under some of the salinity concentrations. Not all species were able to recover after being transferred to distilled water. Seedling emergence was inhibited when seeds were buried. This response was related to depth and to seed size. S. portulacastrum and S. virginicus were the most affected. Nitrates only affected germination response of two species. Seed age promoted germination under a wider range of conditions. P. lindenii showed very heterogeneous responses depending on seed cohort. No dormancy mechanisms were found, other than a thermoperiod and/or light requirement for some of the species. Cosmopolitan grasses tolerated both sand burial and salinity, although the endemics were the most successful in emerging from sand burial; coastal pantropicals were very tolerant to high saline concentrations and recovered completely.