Long-term changes in forest composition and diversity following early logging (1919–1923) and the decline of American chestnut (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Castanea dentata</Emphasis>)

Chestnut blight fungus (Endothia parasitica [Murr.] P.J. And. &; H.W. And.)) is a classic example of an invasive species, which severely damaged populations of its host, Castanea dentata, and had widespread and long-term impacts on eastern North American forests. Concurrently, forests were further disturbed by lumbering, which was common across the region from the mid 1800s to the early 1900s. In 1926, local infestations of chestnut blight were reported in the Coweeta Basin, Southern Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina. We used permanent plot inventories of the Basin (first sampled in 1934 and twice afterward in 1969–72 and 1988–93) to describe the distribution of species along a complex environmental gradient. Specifically, we asked: How does vegetation change over approximately 60 years following logging and the demise of C. dentata? Does the association between vegetation and environment determine the pattern of species distributions through time? Which species replaced C. dentata across this complex environmental gradient? We used nonmetric multidimensional scaling ordination and multiresponse permutation procedure for the analyses of the inventory periods. In 1934, C. dentata was the most important species in the Coweeta Basin. It was present in 98% of the plots and contributed 22% of the total density and 36% of the total basal area. Diversity increased significantly over time and was attributed to an increase in evenness of species distribution. The canopy dominant, C. dentata, was replaced by more than one species across the environmental gradient. Importance values of Quercus prinus, Acer rubrum, Cornus florida, Tsuga canadensis, and Oxydendrum arboreum increased by 2–5% across the basin following the decline of C. dentata. Tsuga canadensis increased in abundance and distribution, especially near streams across elevations. Liriodendron tulipifera replaced C. dentata in moist coves, which have low terrain shape and high organic matter content. In contrast, Q. prinus and A. rubrum were ubiquitous, much like C. dentata before the chestnut blight becoming dominant or co-dominant species across all environmental conditions.     

Two new Raabena species and a new Pararaabena species (Ciliophora,Entodiniomorphida) with redescriptions of Raabena bella and Pararaabena dentata

The genera Raabena and Pararaabena (Ciliophora, Entodiniomorphida, Blepharocorythidae) were monospecific, and their type species are Raabena bella Wolska, 1967 and Pararaabena dentata Wolska, 1968. They have been found in Asian elephants and closely resemble each other: ovoid and laterally compressed body; non-retractable adoral ciliary zone; funnel-shaped vestibulum; three non-retractable somatic ciliary arches. Furthermore, the positional relationship between the vestibular ciliary zone and the anterior dorsal ciliary zone identifies Raabena and Pararaabena: these two ciliary zones are connected in Raabena while they are separated in Pararaabena. While investigating entodiniomorphid ciliates of Asian elephants, the author often encountered ciliates similar to Raabena bella but with a sinuous body or with a small body and ciliates similar to Pararaabena dentata but with a slender body or with no or two caudal lobes. In this study, their general morphology and infraciliature were compared to R. bella and P. dentata to know whether they are new species or morphological variations in a species. As a result, the present study redescribed R. bella and P. dentata, and described R. sinuosa n. sp., R. bellafilia n. sp., P. gracilis n. sp., and morphotypes of P. dentata.     

Ethnomedicine and ethnobotany of fright,a Caribbean culture-bound psychiatric syndrome

Background

Plant species have long been used as principal ingredients of traditional medicine in far-west Nepal. The medicinal plants with ethnomedicinal values are currently being screened for their therapeutic potential but their data and information are inadequately compared and analyzed with the Ayurveda and the phytochemical findings.

Methods

The present study evaluated ethnomedicinal plants and their uses following literature review, comparison, field observations, and analysis. Comparison was made against earlier standard literature of medicinal plants and ethnomedicine of the same area, the common uses of the Ayurveda and the latest common phytochemical findings. The field study for primary data collection was carried out from 2006-2008.

Results

The herbal medicine in far-west Nepal is the basis of treatment of most illness through traditional knowledge. The medicine is made available via ancient, natural health care practices such as tribal lore, home herbal remedy, and the Baidhya, Ayurveda and Amchi systems. The traditional herbal medicine has not only survived but also thrived in the trans-cultural environment with its intermixture of ethnic traditions and beliefs. The present assessment showed that traditional herbal medicine has flourished in rural areas where modern medicine is parsimoniously accessed because of the high cost and long travel time to health center. Of the 48 Nepalese medicinal plants assessed in the present communication, about half of the species showed affinity with the common uses of the Ayurveda, earlier studies and the latest phytochemical findings. The folk uses of Acacia catechu for cold and cough, Aconitum spicatum as an analgesic, Aesculus indica for joint pain, Andrographis paniculata for fever, Anisomeles indica for urinary affections, Azadirachta indica for fever, Euphorbia hirta for asthma, Taxus wallichiana for tumor control, and Tinospora sinensis for diabetes are consistent with the latest pharmacological findings, common Ayurvedic and earlier uses.

Conclusions

Although traditional herbal medicine is only a primary means of health care in far-west Nepal, the medicine has been pursued indigenously with complementing pharmacology and the Ayurveda. Therefore, further pharmacological evaluation of traditional herbal medicine deserves more attention.     

Avian gut-passage effects on seed germination of shrubland species in Mediterranean central Chile

Effects of avian gut-passage on seed germination are important to assess the effectiveness of frugivores in woodland regeneration, particularly in biodiversity hotspots that have a high incidence of avian frugivory. We examined the effect of avian gut-passage on seed germination in contrast to seeds that remain uneaten in five shrub species in Mediterranean central Chile and sought to determine the physiological mechanism(s) by which seed germinability is modified. Germination assays were conducted in a glasshouse for five common shrub species of the sub-Andean matorral: Azara dentata (Flacourtiaceae), Schinus polygamus and Schinus molle (Anacardiaceae), Cestrum parqui (Solanaceae), and Maytenus boaria (Celastraceae). We estimated germinability (final percent germination), dormancy length (time from sowing to first germination), mean length of dormancy of all germinated seeds, and contrasted germination rates of defecated versus manually extracted and pulp-enclosed seeds. Avian gut-passage increased seed germinability in four of the five shrub species studied—primarily through deinhibition via pulp removal. Minimum dormancy length was not modified by avian gut-passage for A. dentata, but was significantly shorter for S. molle and C. parqui. Mean dormancy length was significantly shorter in gut-passed seeds of A. dentata, S. molle and M. boaria. Avian gut-passage greatly enhanced the seed germination rates of three species, A. dentata, S. molle and C. parqui. We conclude that the positive effects of birds on seed germination facilitate the regeneration of sub-Andean shrublands, and that bird declines due to landscape change may impair recovery rates of successional or restored areas due to dispersal limitation.     

Human-Assisted Invasions of Pacific Islands by Litoria Frogs: A Case Study of the Bleating Tree Frog on Lord Howe Island

There are substantial differences among taxonomic groups in their capacity to reach remote oceanic islands via long-distance overwater dispersal from mainland regions. Due to their permeable skin and intolerance of saltwater, amphibians generally require human-assisted dispersal to reach oceanic islands. Several Litoria frog species have been introduced to remote islands throughout the Pacific Ocean region. Lord Howe Island (LHI) is an oceanic island that lies approximately 600 km east of the Australian mainland and has a diverse, endemic biota. The bleating tree frog (Litoria dentata) is native to mainland eastern Australia, but was accidentally introduced to LHI in the 1990s, yet its ecology and potential impact on LHI has remained unstudied. We used a mitochondrial phylogeographical approach to determine that L. dentata was introduced from the Ballina region in northeastern New South Wales. The founding population was likely accidentally introduced with cargo shipped from the mainland. We also completed the first detailed investigation of the distribution, ecology and habitat use of L. dentata on LHI. The species is widespread on LHI and is prevalent in human habitat, cattle pasture and undisturbed forest. We discuss the potential impact of introduced Litoria species on Pacific islands and outline what biosecurity protocols could be implemented to prevent the introduction of further amphibian species to the ecologically sensitive oceanic area.     

NMR-based metabolomic analysis of the seasonal and regional variability of phytochemical compounds in Curtisia dentata stem bark

Traditional medicine markets are provided with medicinal plant material throughout the year, however, internal (e.g. plant age, genetic variability and differential expression of genes) and external factors (e.g. water and nutrient availability, rainfall, photoperiod and herbivory), affect secondary metabolite production in plants. In this study, seasonal variability in metabolite production in Curtisia dentata trees from two geographically separated regions in South Africa are compared. NMR analysis of C. dentata stem bark samples yielded spectral data which were processed in MestReNova to perform multivariate data analysis using Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy (SIMCA) software. This study shows that there are not only seasonal, regional and yearly differences in secondary metabolite production in C. dentata trees, but that production patterns of hydrophilic and lipophilic chemical compounds in individual trees also vary. Sucrose, isoeugenol and betulinic acid have been used in a targeted analysis to show the variation in individual compounds in the individual trees as a response to seasonal and geographical differences. Therefore, the season and year, as well as the region, harvesting site and specific trees from which plant material is collected affect the concentrations of chemical compounds extracted from C. dentata stem bark for the preparation of remedies.     

Comparative chloroplast and nuclear DNA analysis of Castanea species in the southern region of the USA

Boundaries between American Castanea species (Castanea dentata, the American chestnut and C. pumila var. pumila, the Allegheny chinkapin, and var. ozarkensis, the Ozark chinkapin) have been difficult to establish because of intraspecific variation, interspecific similarities and the incidence of chestnut blight, which has prevented trees from maturing. In this study, informative chloroplast (cp) DNA and nuclear sequences from Castanea taxa were analyzed to gain a better understanding of their phylogeography in North America. Our emphasis has been on the most southern Castanea population in the Appalachian region, known for its morphological diversity. This Ruffner Mountain (Alabama) population shows a high number of unique haplotypes, which can be divided into two main groups. One group shares homology with the widespread and evolutionarily recent C. dentata haplotype. The other group shares homology with American chestnuts and Allegheny chinkapin taxa from southern states. This group has been the result of recent and more ancient cp capture and hybridization, indicative of hybrid zone clustering and glacial refugial origin. The range of C. pumila must have been more extensive along the Coastal Plains region, since only a few mutations separate the Ozark chinkapin from the main Allegheny chinkapin haplotype. The geographic origin of the American Castanea species complex appears to be in the Gulf Coast region.     

Confirmation of Neoporphyra cf. dentata on Shikinejima,Izu Islands,southcentral Japan,and comparison with co-occurring Neoporphyra haitanensis

The Izu Islands of southcentral Japan are thought to fall within the distribution range of Neoporphyra dentata. However, the gametophytic blades of Bangiales collected from Shikinejima and Hachijojima, Izu Islands, were identified as Neoporphyra haitanensis in our previous study. Thus, it became uncertain whether N. dentata is distributed in the Izu Islands, including Shikinejima. To clarify whether N. dentata grows on Shikinejima, we conducted a further distribution survey of N. dentata on the island. The morphological features of the blade samples collected from an additional sampling site on Shikinejima were more similar to those of N. dentata than to those of N. haitanensis: the blade thickness and the division formula of spermatangia resembled those of the former species rather than the latter species. However, the division formula of zygotosporangia was different from those of either species. The phylogenetic analyses of the rbcL gene indicated that the samples were resolved in a clade including N. dentata collected from Shirahama, Chiba Prefecture, and Enoshima, Kanagawa Prefecture, Honshu, Japan. The p-distances of the chloroplast rbcL gene and nuclear 18S rRNA also supported identification of the samples as N. dentata. The results demonstrated that N. dentata is also distributed on Shikinejima with co-occurring N. haitanensis, and that the island materials of the two species are genetically different from other materials of the two species, respectively.     

Molecular identification of Schisandra chinensis and its allied species using multiplex PCR based on SNPs

Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. is a climbing woody vine found over a wide geographical range in northeast Asia. Its red five-flavored fruits have been used as drugs and food. In China and Korea, the dried fruit of S. chinensis has been used for a long time as a traditional medicine. Three species of the family Schisandraceae, S. chinensis, S. repanda, and Kadsura japonica, are distributed mainly in southern Korea. While S. chinensis is broadly distributed, S. repanda and K. japonica are restricted to the southern islands of Korea, especially Jeju. The amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS), one of molecular genotyping technique, is a simple and rapid method for detecting point mutations, restriction fragment length polymorphisms, and small deletions or insertions in a DNA sequence. This PCR-based technique utilizes a primer designed to react only when it anneals to specific target sequences in a DNA sample. In the present study, we analyzed rbcL of the chloroplast gene and ITS from S. chinensis and two related taxa, S. repanda and K. japonica, and developed a specific marker for distinguishing S. chinensis from the related taxa based on SNPs using multiplex PCR. Result showed that two species-specific fragments with 230 bp of rbcL and 278 bp of ITS region were additionally amplified only in all of individuals of S. chinenesis using multiplex PCR method. Here, we describe the details of the protocol for the molecular identification of S. chinensis and other related species. Our results cover five populations of S. chinensis in Korea.     

Four new species of Smilax (Smilacaceae) from southeastern Asia

Described as new areSmilax biumbellata of the affinity ofS. nervomarginata,S. siamensis of the affinity of 5.perfoliata, and two others inSmilax sect.Macranthae:S. inversa andS. pachysandroides.Smilax inversa (characterized by strongly deflexed leaves and inflorescences on zigzag stems) andS. pachysandroides (with subsessile leaves on low simple stems) show no close resemblance to any previously known species of the section.     

“Cardamine pratensis complex” in the Asian territory of the USSR

The taxonomy of the “Cardamine pratensis complex” in the Asian territory of the USSR is dealt with. After critical analysis of the materials stored in various herbaria in Leningrad (LE, LEU) and Moscow (MHA, MW) three species,C. nymanii Gand.,C. dentata Schult., andC. pratensis L. s. str. have been recognised pointing out their intraspecific variations and geographical distribution within the territory concerned.     

Effect of Sophora flavescens on non-specific immune response of tilapia (GIFT Oreochromis niloticus) and disease resistance against Streptococcus agalactiae

The paper describes the effect of a diet supplemented with the Chinese traditional herbal medicine Sophora flavescens on the immunity and disease resistance of an Oreochromis niloticus GIFT strain. Experimental diets containing 0.025%, 0.050%, 0.100%, 0.200%, and 0.400% S. flavescens, as well as a control group without S. flavescens were used. We tested the non-specific humoral immune responses (lysozyme, antiprotease, and complement) and cellular immune responses (reactive oxygen species and nitrogen species production and myeloperoxidase), as well as disease resistance against Streptococcus agalactiae. S. flavescens supplementation at all dose significantly enhanced serum lysozyme, antiprotease, and natural hemolytic complement activity. Similarly, all S. flavescens doses enhanced cellular myeloperoxidase activity. The increased production of reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen intermediates by peripheral blood leucocytes was observed in most of the treatment groups throughout the test period. The fish fed 0.100% S. flavescens had a percent mortality of 21.1% and a relative percent survival of 73.3% compared with the group fed the basal diet during the S. agalactiae challenge. The results suggest that S. flavescens can be recommended as a tilapia feed supplement to enhance fish immunity and disease resistance against S. agalactiae.     

Genetic variation and differentiation in populations of Japanese emperor oak <Emphasis Type="Italic">Quercus dentata</Emphasis> Thunb. and Mongolian oak <Emphasis Type="Italic">Quercus mongolica</Emphasis> Fisch. ex Ledeb.) in the south of the Russian Far East

Allozyme variation of Japanese emperor oak Quercus dentata Thunb. and Mongolian oak Quercus mongolica Fisch. ex Ledeb.) was examined in 11 populations of these species from southern Primorye. Analysis of 18 loci showed that in these populations, 66.7% of genes of Mongolian oak are polymorphic, the number of alleles per locus being 2.28. In Japanese emperor oak, these parameters were respectively 59.8 and 2.36%. The observed heterozygosity in both species did not differ from the expected values, constituting 0.198 in Japanese emperor oak and 0.161 in Mongolian oak. The Nei’s distance between Quercus mongolica and Q. dentata was 0.053. The main contribution to the species differentiation is made by loci Lap-1, Idh-1, Pgm-1, and Ndh-1, although none of them is diagnostic. The Japanese emperor oak and Mongolian oak populations formed separate clusters in an UPGMA dendrogram. Taking into account morphological and ecological isolation of the species, we suggest that the differences in gene frequencies may reflect selection acting in favor of adaptation to different growth conditions and counteracting between-species hybridization.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Sloanea cuautitlanensis</Emphasis> (Elaeocarpaceae), una especie nueva de árbol para México

Sloanea cuautitlanensis is described and illustrated. We give information about its ecology and distribution and discuss its relationships with the species with most affinity: S. cruenta, S. jamaicensis, S. terniflora and S. uniflora. A key is provided to separate it from its most related species.     

The biology ofSclerotinia sclerotiorum,S. trifoliorum,andS. minor with emphasis on specific nomenclature

The separation ofSclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary, 5.trifoliorum Erikss., andS. minor Jagger into three distinct species has been based on traditional morphological and physiological criteria such as gross cultural characteristics, sclerotial size, ascus and ascospore dimensions, time of apothecial development in the field, and host association. However, these characteristics tend to be variable and some workers have concluded that the three fungi should be included in one species, 5.sclerotiorum. Recently, new data have been published on morphological, cultural, physiological, ontogenetic, enzyme pattern, mycelial interaction, and cytological characteristics of isolates ofSclerotinia spp. This information supplements, but does not replace, that available from more traditional taxonomic methods and helps to resolve the controversy on the taxonomy and nomenclature of these fungi. This article reviews the relevant literature on the biology of 5.sclerotiorum, S. trifoliorum, and 5.minor, with particular emphasis given to those differences between them that could be of significance regarding their specific nomenclature. After an introduction, mycelia, microconidia, sclerotia, apothecia, infection, control, and taxonomy and nomenclature are discussed. The authors conclude thatS. sclerotiorum, S. trifoliorum, andS. minor are distinct species. The characteristics used to distinguish between them are summarized in table form.     

Parasitoid complexes of lepidopteran leaf miners on oaks (Quercus dentata andQuercus mongolica) in Hokkaido,Japan

Parasitoid complexes of four microlepidopteran leaf-mining genera,Phyllonorycter, Caloptilia (Gracillariidae),Tischeria (Tischeriidae) andStigmella (Nepticulidae), which make mines on two oaks,Quercus dentata andQuercus mongolica, were studied at the Ishikari Coast, Hokkaido, northern Japan. In total, twenty-five parasitoid species were recognized.Phyllonorycter showed the highest parasitoid-species richness among the four leaf-mining genera. The number of parasitoid species associated with leaf miners onQ. dentata was nearly equal to that associated with miners onQ. mongolica, but a considerable difference was observed in the faunal make-up of parasitoids between leaf miners on the two oaks. The dominant parasitoid species differed betweenPhyllonorycter leucocorona andPhyllonorycter similis even on the same oak,Q. dentata. Factors influencing the host ranges of parasitoids and the parasitoid richness of host species or genera are discussed on the basis of the koinoparasitism/idioparasitism categorization.     

Antibacterial potential of some Saudi honeys from Asir region against selected pathogenic bacteria

Honey is a nutrient rich natural product and has been utilized as traditional and complementary medicine since ancient times. In this study, antibacterial activity of Sider (Ziziphus spina-christi), Dharm (Lavandula dentata), and Majra (Hypoestes forskaolii) honey samples collected from Asir region of Saudi Arabia was in vitro evaluated at 80% and 50% w/v concentrations against five pathogenic bacteria i.e. Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella flexneri, and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Well diffusion assays to measure the average zone of inhibition (ZOI) and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values were employed in the experiments. All the tested honey samples showed antibacterial activity in a dose-dependent manner. Sider and Dharm exhibited a good antibacterial activity at high concentrations while, Majra honey of Apis mellifera jemenitica and of Apis florea showed comparatively low antibacterial activity. The average MIC values of Sider, Dhram from Rijal Alma, Dharm from Al-Souda, Majra (A.m. jemenitica), and Majra (A. florea) honey against all tested bacteria were 22%, 16%, 18%, 32%, and 28% (v/v) respectively. Dharm and Sider honeys showed better antibacterial activity than Majra honey. Saudi honey can be considered as a promising future antimicrobial agent and should be further investigated as an alternative candidate in the management of resistant bacterial pathogens.     

Two new species of Solenostelopteris from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation in Wyoming and Utah

Permineralized rhizomes of two new species of Solenostelopteris Kershaw, S. leithii, and S. medlynii, are described from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation from the Steiner and Scott's localities north of Greybull, Wyoming, and from Fremont Junction, east of Mt. Ellen, and Mussentuchit Wash sites in Utah. The species are characterized by having a heterogeneous (S. leithii) to homogeneous (S. medlynii) pith, rhizomes with branches (S. leithii), a sclerenchymatous (S. leithii) or parenchymatous (S. medlynii) inner cortex, and both with a parenchymatous middle cortex. The outer cortex of S. leithii is parenchymatous, whereas in S. medlynii, it is composed of round to irregularly shaped, thick-walled cells. The C-shaped leaf traces in S. leithii usually arise single ranked, sometimes two ranked, with short leaf gaps and short internodes. Although the rhizomes of S. medlynii are incomplete and lack leaf traces, they still suggest very long internodes. Because fronds and epidermal trichomes are lacking in both, the affinity of these species to modern taxa, such as members of the Loxsomaceae, remains uncertain.     

Reproduction and development of common species of peanut worms (Sipuncula) from the Sea of Japan

This study deals with the reproduction and development of the most common species of peanut worms from the Sea of Japan: Thysanocardia nigra, Themiste pyroides, and Phascolosoma agassizii. Data on the time of reproduction and larval settlement and the distribution of these species in Peter the Great Bay are provided. The peculiarities of gametogenesis, spawning, and embryonic, larval, and postlarval development are described. The reproductive biology of representatives of these species from the western and eastern Pacific is examined in a comparative aspect.