Effect of dimethyl sulfoxide on the structure and the functional properties of horseradish peroxidase as observed by spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry

Electrochemical biosensors have found wide application in food and clinical areas, as well as in environmental field. A large number of articles focused on horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-based biosensors have been published in the last decade, due to the capability of HRP to quantitatively detect the presence of hydrogen peroxide produced in a reaction. At present a large body of multi-enzymatic amperometric biosensors are realized by entrapping HRP together with other enzymes into a polymeric matrix; these systems represent a promising example of simple, low-cost electrochemical tools for the analysis of bioanalytes in solution, such as glucose, choline and cholesterol. Due to the fact that polymers used for HRP entrapping are soluble in organic solvents and that many solvents are strong denaturants of aquo-soluble proteins, in this paper we investigate (in particular, by circular dichroism and electron paramagnetic spectroscopies) the effect of dimethyl sulfoxide, one of the organic solvents employed for polymer solubilization, on the structure and the functionality of HRP, in order to determine the effect induced by the solvent concentration on the structure and activity of the hemoprotein. This is relevant for basic and applied biochemistry, HRP being largely employed in bioinorganic chemistry and sensor area.     

Effect of cyclodextrin on the activity and secondary structure of horseradish peroxidase

The activity and secondary structure of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) was studied in aqueous solution containing alpha-, beta- and gamma-cyclodextrin (CD). The results showed that the activity of HRP was enhanced to different extents by the three kinds of CD. A Fourier Transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy study indicated that the amount of alpha-helical structure was important for the activity of HRP. This phenomenon is discussed.     

Synthesis and properties of horseradish peroxidase copolymers

Conditions for copolymerization of native and sodium periodate-oxidized horseradish peroxidase (HTP; EC 1.11.1.7) have been optimized. Copolymerization products have been characterized electrophoretically, spectrally, and kinetically. Copolymers containing 2-3, 4, 5-7, and 9-10 molecules of the enzyme were found among the products of polymerization. The copolymers had lower values of D403/D280 than HRP. The copolymers had more ordered structures than the original HRP. Comparison of the thermal stability and kinetic characteristics of the fractions differing in the ratio of copolymers to the monomeric enzyme demonstrated that the polymeric products were more stable than HRP (in terms of resistance to high temperature or inhibitory effects of H202), but their kinetic activity was, on the whole, lower than that of the original enzyme.     

Calcium-related properties of horseradish peroxidase.

Horseradish peroxidase has been shown to be a metalloprotein in which calcium contributes to the structural stability of the protein. Isoenzyme C and A contain 2.0 and 1.4 moles calcium/mole enzyme, respectively, which can be removed by treatment with guanidine hydrochloride and EDTA. Calcium-free isoenzyme C, but not isoenzyme A, reconstitutes upon addition of calcium and regains enzymatic activity. Free calcium readily exchanges with isoenzyme C, but only to a small extent with isoenzyme A. In addition the role of calcium in maintaining molecular conformation is evidenced by the effects of calcium removal from the isoenzyme C on the thermal stability of the protein.     

Synthesis and properties of horseradish peroxidase copolymers

Conditions for copolymerization of native and sodium periodate-oxidized horseradish peroxidase (HTP; EC 1.11.1.7) have been optimized. Copolymerization products have been characterized electrophoretically, spectrally, and kinetically. Copolymers containing 2–3, 4, 5–7, and 9–10 molecules of the enzyme were found among the products of polymerization. The copolymers had lower values of D ₄₀₃/D ₂₈₀ than HRP. The copolymers had more ordered structures than the original HRP. Comparison of the thermal stability and kinetic characteristics of the fractions differing in the ratio of copolymers to the monomeric enzyme demonstrated that the polymeric products were more stable than HRP (in terms of resistance to high temperature or inhibitory effects of H₂O₂), but their kinetic activity was, on the whole, lower than that of the original enzyme.     

Preparation and properties of matrix-supported horseradish peroxidase.

A new method of enzyme immobilization has been described using poly(4-methacryloxybenzoic acid) as the carrier. Activation of the polymer, prior to enzyme attachment, was achieved with N-ethoxycarbonyl-2-ethoxy-1,2-dihydroquinoline. The enzyme coupling step proceeded through nucleophilic attack by the protein on a mixed carbonic anhydride. The degree of polymer activation was determined by analysis for quinoline, a by-product of the reaction. The polymer-enzyme complex was compared to the enzyme in solution in terms of pH optimum, substrate kinetics, and thermal denaturation. Potential uses of the polymerenzyme system in chemical synthesis of benzoquinone derivatives are discussed.     

Catalytic properties of tryptophanless recombinant horseradish peroxidase

Heme-containing plant peroxidases (EC 1.11.1.7) contain a highly conserved single tryptophan residue. Its replacement with Phe in recombinant horseradish peroxidase (rHRP) increased the stability of the mutant enzyme in acid media. The kinetic properties of native, wild-type, and W117F mutant recombinant horseradish peroxidase in the reactions of ammonium 2, 2;-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonate) (ABTS), guaiacol, and o-phenylenediamine oxidation are very similar. However, significant changes in the reaction rate constant characteristic for the monomolecular rate-limiting step ascribed either to product dissociation from its complex with the enzyme or electron transfer from the substrate to the active site within the Michaelis complex were observed. The data indirectly indicate the participation of the single Trp residue in oxidation of ABTS and guaiacol and possible differences in kinetic mechanisms for oxidation of ABTS, guaiacol, and o-phenylenediamine.     

Binding of porphyrin to horseradish peroxidase: effects on structure and function

Spectrofluorimetric and spectrophotometric studies were done to understand the binding of hematoporphyrin, a photosensitizer to horseradish peroxidase (EC1.11.1.7). The binding affinity constant (K) decreases as the state of aggregation of the porphyrin increases, while the number of binding sites (approximately 1) remains unchanged. The interaction appears to be mostly hydrophobic, entropy-driven and endothermic process. Hematoporphyrin potentiates horseradish peroxidase-catalyzed H2O2-mediated NADH oxidation, probably by porphyrin-influenced removal of superoxide radicals, which are generated in the system. Conformational change of the protein due to its interaction with porphyrin may be associated with potentiation of the catalytic activity of the enzyme.     

Catalytic and immunochemical properties of ferritin conjugates with horseradish peroxidase

The human spleen ferritin--horseradish peroxidase conjugate (HRP--Fer) was synthesized by periodate oxidation of the enzyme carbohydrate fragment. The protein fraction containing 1-2 peroxidase molecules and characterized by kinetic homogeneity was obtained in the peroxidatic ortho-dianisidine (o-DA) oxidation reaction. Gel diffusion precipitation of HRP--Fer with peroxidases and ferritin antibodies was carried out. The precipitation confirms the retention by peroxidase and ferritin of their antigenic properties. The kinetics of peroxidatic oxidation of o-DA by the HRP--Fer conjugate was studied within the temperature interval of 15-37 degrees C. The value of catalytic constant for this reaction exceeds that for native peroxidase 1.75-fold. A kinetic analysis of thermal inactivation of peroxidase and its conjugate was performed within the temperature range of 40-65 degrees C. The effective rate constants of inactivation obtained from the first order equation are higher for HRP--Fer than for the native enzyme. The effect of pH on the rates of inactivation of HRP--Fer and the non-modified enzyme was studied at 50 degrees C. The enzyme and its conjugate were shown to stabilize in acid media. The HRP--Fer conjugate can be used as an effective tool in immunoenzymatic assays of ferritin.     

Spectroscopic study on structure of horseradish peroxidase in water and dimethyl sulfoxide mixture

The structure of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) in phosphate buffered saline (PBS)/dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) mixed solvents at different compositions is investigated by IR, electronic absorption, and fluorescence spectroscopies. The fluorescence spectra and the amide I spectra of ferric HRP [HRP(Fe3+)] show that overall structural changes are relatively small up to 60% DMSO. Although the amide I band of HRP(Fe3+) shows a gradual change in the secondary structure and a decrease in the contents of a helices, its fluorescence spectra indicate that the distance between the heme and Trp173 is almost constant. In contrast, the changes in the positions of the Soret bands for resting HRP(Fe3+) and catalytic intermediates (compounds I and II) and the IR spectra at the C-O stretching vibration mode of carbonyl ferrous HRP [HRP(Fe2+)-CO] show that the microenvironment in the distal heme pocket is altered, even with low DMSO contents. The large reduction of the catalytic activity of HRP even at low DMSO contents can be attributed to the structural transition in the distal heme pocket. In PBS/DMSO mixtures containing more than 70 vol % DMSO, HRP undergoes large structural changes, including a large loss of the secondary structure and a dissociation of the heme from the apoprotein. The presence of the components of the amide I band that can be assigned to strongly hydrogen bonding amide C=O groups at 1616 and 1684 cm(-1) suggests that the denatured HRP may aggregate through strong hydrogen bonds.     

Tryptophanless recombinant horseradish peroxidase: stability and catalytic properties.

The tryptophanless mutant of horseradish peroxidase, W117F, has been constructed and expressed in Escherichia coli. The mutation affects enzyme folding and stability. The optimum composition of the refolding medium requires the presence of ammonium sulfate. The yield of mutant is ca. 8000 U per liter of the optimized refolding medium with the specific activity of 1100-1500 U/mg (compared to 25, 000 U per liter and 2000 U/mg for the recombinant wild-type enzyme). The mutant is more stable in acid media, in the reaction course and toward irradiation. The effect of hydrogen peroxide pretreatment on radiation-induced inactivation of the wild-type and mutant enzyme indirectly indicates participation of Trp-117 in electron transfer pathways through the enzyme molecule. This is in agreement with the steady-state kinetic data interpreted in terms of Trp-117 participation in electron transfer within the Michaelis complex.     

Characterization of antigenic properties of horseradish peroxidase with monoclonal antibodies

Monoclonal antibodies (mcAbs) specific to alkaline isoenzymes of horseradish peroxidase were used to characterize the antigenic properties of horseradish peroxidase. The results of a competitive binding assay indicated that monoclonal antibodies can be divided into three groups directed against distinct parts of the protein. The interaction of monoclonal antibodies with native and modified horseradish peroxidase showed also three different patterns of reactivity. Antibodies from groups I and II are directed against epitopes which are conformational and formed by tertiary structure elements. Epitopes recognized by these antibodies are sensitive to heme removal or partial denaturation of peroxidase. Antibodies from group III bind specifically with epitopes consisting of primary or secondary structure elements. The antigenic determinants recognized by antibodies from group III PO ₁ and 36F ₉ were shown to be linear (continuous) and formed by amino acid residues 261-267 and 271-277, respectively, as determined by the peptide scanning method (PEPSCAN). The location of revealed linear antigenic determinants in the molecular structure of peroxidase is analyzed.     

Deuterium NMR study of structural and dynamic properties of horseradish peroxidase

High field deuterium NMR spectra have been recorded for various horseradish peroxidase complexes reconstituted with hemins possessing specific 2H labels. The line width of the 2H NMR signals of deuteroheme reconstituted-horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and its cyano complex for the immobilized skeletal 2-2H and 4-2H labels yield the overall protein rotational correlation time (22 ms at 55 degrees C), which is consistent with expectations based on molecular weight. Meso-2H4 labels yield broad (1.3 kHz) signals just upfield from the diamagnetic protein envelope for HRP, and in the central portion of the protein envelope for the CN- ligated resting state HRP. Meso-2H4-labeled mesohemin-reconstituted HRP exhibits a similar signal but shifted further upfield by approximately 10 ppm. The net upfield meso-H hyperfine shifts confirm a five-coordinate structure for resting state HRP. 2Ha resonances for essentially rotationally immobile vinyl groups were detected in both resting state HRP and CN- ligated resting state HRP. Heme methyl-2H-labeling yields relatively narrow lines (approximately 80 Hz) indicative of effective averaging of the quadrupolar relaxation by rapid methyl rotation. Thus the 2H line width of rapidly rotating methyls in hemoproteins can be used effectively to determine the overall protein tumbling rate. Preliminary 2H experiments in meso-2H4-labeled compound I do not support large pi spin density at these positions on the porphyrin cation radical, and argue for a a1u rather than a a2u orbital ground state.     

辣根过氧化物酶的热稳定剂

保持酶的天然状态和高催化特性具有重要的意义。本研究筛选了辣根过氧化物酶(HRP)的稳定剂并研究了其作用机制。结果发现硫酸镁和明胶能够显著提高HRP的热稳定性,并且两者具有协同作用。在硫酸镁和明胶组成的酶稳定剂存在的条件下,HRP在50oC保温80h后仍能保持89%的活性,常温下存放90d后可保持57%的活性,而未加稳定剂的对照样品中HRP的残留活性分别为6%和小于1%。通过对HRP的Soret带吸收光谱,色氨酸内源荧光,ANS荧光进行分析,揭示酶稳定剂可以明显降低在加热条件下HRP的变性程度,从而维持较为稳定的天然构象。     

Effect of temperature on functional properties of carp hemoglobin

Precise oxygen equilibrium curves of carp hemoglobin have been obtained in 0·1 m-phosphate from 10 to 25 °C. The equilibrium data were analyzed according to the stepwise oxygenation model of Adair (1925) to obtain the enthalpy change (ΔH_i), entropy change (ΔS_i) and free energy change (ΔG_i) for the i (= 1, 2, 3, 4) individual oxygenation steps. The values of ΔH_i are definitely non-uniform with dependencies on i and the pH of the medium. The co-operative effects in carp hemoglobin are due mainly to enthalpic contributions under the conditions studied here. The thermodynamic properties suggest a structural transition with pK ~8·5 as was also seen in other functional and spectroscopic measurements.     

Stereospecificity of horseradish peroxidase

We report here on the stereospecificity observed in the action of horseradish peroxidase (HRPC) on monophenol and diphenol substrates. Several enantiomers of monophenols and o-diphenols were assayed: L-tyrosinol, D-tyrosinol, L-tyrosine, DL-tyrosine, D-tyrosine, L-dopa, DL-dopa, D-dopa, L-alpha-methyldopa, DL-alpha-methyldopa, DL-adrenaline, D-adrenaline, L-isoproterenol, DL-isoproterenol and D-isoproterenol. The electronic density at the carbon atoms in the C-1 and C-2 positions of the benzene ring were determined by NMR assays (delta1 and delta2). This value is related to the nucleophilic power of the oxygen atom of the hydroxyl groups and to its oxidation-reduction capacity. The spatial orientation of the ring substituents resulted in lower Km values for L- than for D-isomers. The kcat values for substrates capable of saturating the enzyme were lower for D- than for L-isomers, although both have the same delta1 and delta2 NMR values for carbons C-1 and C-2, and therefore the same oxidation-reduction potential. In the case of substrates that cannot saturate the enzyme, the values of the binding constant for compound II (an intermediate in the catalytic cycle) followed the order: L-isomer>DL-isomer>D-isomer. Therefore, horseradish peroxidase showed stereospecificity in its affinity toward its substrates (K m) and in their transformation reaction rates (k cat).     

Effect of chemical modification on thermal stability of horseradish peroxidase]

Soluble preparations of horse radish peroxidase are obtained by means of its amino groups modification with glutaric aldehyde, maleic anhydride and inert proteins including albumin. The enzyme activity is found to decrease under the modification with glutaric aldehyde and to be unchanged at all other cases. Thermal stability of the enzyme preparations obtained is studied within the temperature range from 56 to 80 degrees C. Thermostability of glutaric aldehyde-modified peroxidase is approximately 2.5-fold decreased at 56 degrees C. Thermostability of other preparations exceeds the stability of native peroxidase in 25--90 times at 56 degrees C. Thermodynamic parameters of activation for the process of irreversible thermoinactivation of native and modified enzyme are calculated. A strong compensation effect between activation enthalpy and entropy values is observed, which were changed in 1.5--2 times, while the free activation energy is changed by 2--3 kcal/mol only. Possible mechanism of the change of the enzyme thermal stability under its chemical modification is discussed.     

Calcium binding by horseradish peroxidase C and the heme environmental structure

The hyperfine shifted proton NMR spectrum of isoenzyme c of horseradish peroxidase indicated that one calcium ion is essential to the enzyme in maintaining the protein structure in the heme vicinity.