Cyclic nucleotide regulation of store-operated Ca2+ influx in airway smooth muscle

Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+ release and plasma membrane Ca2+ influx are key to intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) regulation in airway smooth muscle (ASM). SR Ca2+ depletion triggers influx via store-operated Ca2+ channels (SOCC) for SR replenishment. Several clinically relevant bronchodilators mediate their effect via cyclic nucleotides (cAMP, cGMP). We examined the effect of cyclic nucleotides on SOCC-mediated Ca2+ influx in enzymatically dissociated porcine ASM cells. SR Ca2+ was depleted by 1 microM cyclopiazonic acid in 0 extracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]o), nifedipine, and KCl (preventing Ca2+ influx through L-type and SOCC channels). SOCC was then activated by reintroduction of [Ca2+]o and characterized by several techniques. We examined cAMP effects on SOCC by activating SOCC in the presence of 1 microM isoproterenol or 100 microM dibutryl cAMP (cell-permeant cAMP analog), whereas we examined cGMP effects using 1 microM (Z)-1-[N-(2-aminoethyl)-N-(2-ammonioethyl)amino]diazen-1-ium-1,2-diolate (DETA-NO nitric oxide donor) or 100 microM 8-bromoguanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cell-permeant cGMP analog). The role of protein kinases A and G was examined by preexposure to 100 nM KT-5720 and 500 nM KT-5823, respectively. SOCC-mediated Ca2+ influx was dependent on the extent of SR Ca2+ depletion, sensitive to Ni2+ and La3+, but not inhibitors of voltage-gated influx channels. cAMP as well as cGMP potently inhibited Ca2+ influx, predominantly via their respective protein kinases. Additionally, cAMP cross-activation of protein kinase G contributed to SOCC inhibition. These data demonstrate that a Ni2+/La3+-sensitive Ca2+ influx in ASM triggered by SR Ca2+ depletion is inhibited by cAMP and cGMP via a protein kinase mechanism. Such inhibition may play a role in the bronchodilatory response of ASM to clinically relevant drugs (e.g., beta-agonists vs. nitric oxide).     

Calmodulin regulates Ca(2+)-dependent feedback inhibition of store-operated Ca(2+) influx by interaction with a site in the C terminus of TrpC1

The mechanism involved in [Ca(2+)](i)-dependent feedback inhibition of store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE) is not yet known. Expression of Ca(2+)-insensitive calmodulin (Mut-CaM) but not wild-type CaM increased SOCE and decreased its Ca(2+)-dependent inactivation. Expression of TrpC1 lacking C terminus aa 664-793 (TrpC1DeltaC) also attenuated Ca(2+)-dependent inactivation of SOCE. CaM interacted with endogenous and expressed TrpC1 and with GST-TrpC1 C terminus but not with TrpC1DeltaC. Two CaM binding domains, aa 715-749 and aa 758-793, were identified. Expression of TrpC1Delta758-793 but not TrpC1Delta715-749 mimicked the effects of TrpC1DeltaC and Mut-CaM on SOCE. These data demonstrate that CaM mediates Ca(2+)-dependent feedback inhibition of SOCE via binding to a domain in the C terminus of TrpC1. These findings reveal an integral role for TrpC1 in the regulation of SOCE.     

Expression of truncated transient receptor potential protein 1alpha (Trp1alpha ): evidence that the Trp1 C terminus modulates store-operated Ca2+ entry

Transient receptor potential protein 1 (Trp1) has been proposed as a component of the store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE) channel. However, the exact mechanism by which Trp1 is regulated by store depletion is not known. Here, we examined the role of the Trp1 C-terminal domain in SOCE by expressing hTrp1alpha lacking amino acids 664-793 (DeltaTrp1alpha) or full-length hTrp1alpha in the HSG (human submandibular gland) cell line. Both carbachol (CCh) and thapsigargin (Tg) activated sustained Ca(2+) influx in control (nontransfected), DeltaTrp1alpha-, and Trp1alpha-expressing cells. Sustained [Ca(2+)](i), following stimulation with either Tg or CCh in DeltaTrp1alpha-expressing cells, was about 1.5-2-fold higher than in Trp1alpha-expressing cells and 4-fold higher than in control cells. Importantly, (i) basal Ca(2+) influx and (ii) Tg- or CCh-stimulated internal Ca(2+) release were similar in all the cells. A similar increase in Tg-stimulated Ca(2+) influx was seen in cells expressing Delta2Trp1alpha, lacking the C-terminal domain amino acid 649-793, which includes the EWKFAR sequence. Further, both inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor-3 and caveolin-1 were immunoprecipitated with DeltaTrp1alpha and Trp1alpha. In aggregate, these data suggest that (i) the EWKFAR sequence does not contribute significantly to the Trp1-associated increase in SOCE, and (ii) the Trp1 C-terminal region, amino acids 664-793, is involved in the modulation of SOCE.     

Caveolin-1 contributes to assembly of store-operated Ca2+ influx channels by regulating plasma membrane localization of TRPC1

TRPC1, a component of store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) channels, is assembled in a complex with caveolin-1 (Cav1) and key Ca2+ signaling proteins. This study examines the role of Cav1 in the function of TRPC1. TRPC1 and Cav1 were colocalized in the plasma membrane region of human submandibular gland and Madin-Darby canine kidney cells. Full-length Cav1 bound to both the N and C termini of TRPC1. Amino acids 271-349, which includes a Cav1 binding motif (amino acids 322-349), was identified as the Cav1 binding domain in the TRPC1 N terminus. Deletion of amino acids 271-349 or 322-349 prevented plasma membrane localization of TRPC1. Importantly, TRPC1Delta271-349 induced a dominant suppression of SOCE and was associated with wild-type TRPC1. Although the role of the C-terminal Cav1 binding domain is not known, its deletion did not affect localization of TRPC1 (Singh, B. B., Liu, X., and Ambudkar, I. S. (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275, 36483-36486). Further, expression of a truncated Cav1 (Cav1Delta51-169), but not full-length Cav1, similarly disrupted plasma membrane localization of endogenously and exogenously expressed TRPC1 in human submandibular gland and Madin-Darby canine kidney cells. Cav1Delta51-169 also suppressed thapsigarginand carbachol-stimulated Ca2+ influx and increased the detergent solubility of TRPC1, although plasma membrane lipid raft domains were not disrupted. These data demonstrate that plasma membrane localization of TRPC1 depends on an interaction between its N terminus and Cav1. Thus, our data suggest that Cav1 has an important role in the assembly of SOCE channel(s).     

Store-operated Ca2+ entry in porcine airway smooth muscle

Ca(2+) influx triggered by depletion of sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca(2+) stores [mediated via store-operated Ca(2+) channels (SOCC)] was characterized in enzymatically dissociated porcine airway smooth muscle (ASM) cells. When SR Ca(2+) was depleted by either 5 microM cyclopiazonic acid or 5 mM caffeine in the absence of extracellular Ca(2+), subsequent introduction of extracellular Ca(2+) further elevated [Ca(2+)](i). SOCC was insensitive to 1 microM nifedipine- or KCl-induced changes in membrane potential. However, preexposure of cells to 100 nM-1 mM La(3+) or Ni(2+) inhibited SOCC. Exposure to ACh increased Ca(2+) influx both in the presence and absence of a depleted SR. Inhibition of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP)-induced SR Ca(2+) release by 20 microM xestospongin D inhibited SOCC, whereas ACh-induced IP(3) production by 5 microM U-73122 had no effect. Inhibition of Ca(2+) release through ryanodine receptors (RyR) by 100 microM ryanodine also prevented Ca(2+) influx via SOCC. Qualitatively similar characteristics of SOCC-mediated Ca(2+) influx were observed with cyclopiazonic acid- vs. caffeine-induced SR Ca(2+) depletion. These data demonstrate that a Ni(2+)/La(3+)-sensitive Ca(2+) influx via SOCC in porcine ASM cells involves SR Ca(2+) release through both IP(3) and RyR channels. Additional regulation of Ca(2+) influx by agonist may be related to a receptor-operated, noncapacitative mechanism.     

STIM1-dependent and STIM1-independent function of transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels tunes their store-operated mode

Ca(2+) influx by store-operated Ca(2+) channels is a key component of the receptor-evoked Ca(2+) signal. In all cells examined, transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels mediate a significant portion of the receptor-stimulated Ca(2+) influx. Recent studies have revealed how STIM1 activates TRPC1 in response to store depletion; however, the role of STIM1 in TRPC channel activation by receptor stimulation is not fully understood. Here, we established mutants of TRPC channels that could not be activated by STIM1 but were activated by the "charge-swap" mutant STIM1(K684E,K685E). Significantly, WT but not mutant TRPC channels were inhibited by scavenging STIM1 with Orai1(R91W), indicating the STIM1 dependence and independence of WT and mutant TRPC channels, respectively. Importantly, mutant TRPC channels were robustly activated by receptor stimulation. Moreover, STIM1 and STIM1(K684E,K685E) reciprocally affected receptor-activated WT and mutant TRPC channels. Together, these findings indicate that TRPC channels can function as STIM1-dependent and STIM1-independent channels, which increases the versatility of TRPC channel function and their role in receptor-stimulated Ca(2+) influx.     

Molecular analysis of a store-operated and 2-acetyl-sn-glycerol-sensitive non-selective cation channel. Heteromeric assembly of TRPC1-TRPC3

We have reported that internal Ca2+ store depletion in HSY cells stimulates a nonselective cation current which is distinct from I(CRAC) in RBL cells and TRPC1-dependent I(SOC) in HSG cells (Liu, X., Groschner, K., and Ambudkar, I. S. (2004) J. Membr. Biol. 200, 93-104). Here we have analyzed the molecular composition of this channel. Both thapsigargin (Tg) and 2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG) stimulated similar non-selective cation currents and Ca2+ entry in HSY cells. The effects of Tg and OAG were not additive. HSY cells endogenously expressed TRPC1, TRPC3, and TRPC4 but not TRPC5 or TRPC6. Immunoprecipitation of TRPC1 pulled down TRPC3 but not TRPC4. Conversely, TRPC1 co-immunoprecipitated with TRPC3. Expression of antisense TRPC1 decreased (i) Tg- and OAG-stimulated currents and Ca2+ entry and (ii) the level of endogenous TRPC1 but not TRPC4. Antisense TRPC3 similarly reduced Ca2+ entry and endogenous TRPC3. Yeast two-hybrid analysis revealed an interaction between NTRPC1 and NTRPC3 (CTRPC1-CTRPC3, CTRPC3-CTRPC1, or CTRPC1-NTRPC3 did not interact), which was confirmed by glutathione S-transferase (GST) pull-down assays (GST-NTRPC3 pulled down TRPC1 and vice versa). Expression of NTRPC1 or NTRPC3 induced similar dominant suppression of Tg- and OAG-stimulated Ca2+ entry. NTRPC3 did not alter surface expression of TRPC1 or TRPC3 but disrupted TRPC1-TRPC3 association. In aggregate, our data demonstrate that TRPC1 and TRPC3 co-assemble, via N-terminal interactions, to form a heteromeric store-operated non-selective cation channel in HSY cells. Thus selective association between TRPCs generate distinct store-operated channels. Diversity of store-operated channels might be related to the physiology of the different cell types.     

库容性Ca2+内流参与ACh诱导的大鼠远端结肠平滑肌收缩

应用生物换能技术和Ca^2＋通道特异性阻断剂观察并记录大鼠离体远端结肠平滑肌收缩张力的变化,分析库容性Ca^2＋内流（capacitative Ca^2＋ entry,CCE）是否与ACh诱导的离体远端结肠平滑肌收缩反应有关。结果表明,以无钙的Krebs液灌流或应用EGTA螯合细胞外Ca^2＋后,高K^＋及ACh引起的远端结肠平滑肌收缩几乎完全消失。电压操纵性Ca^2＋通道阻断剂verapamil也能减弱高K^＋及ACh引起的远端结肠平滑肌收缩,其减弱的程度分别为74％和41％。在无钙的Krebs液中,5μmol／LACh可引起离体肠管瞬时性收缩,这是由肌质网（sarcoplasmic reticulum,SR）释放钙所致：然后加入10μmol／L阿托品（atropine）,并在此基础上恢复细胞外Ca^2＋（2．5mmol／L）,结肠平滑肌则出现持续性收缩,待收缩反应达峰值时,加入5μmol／L verapamil,收缩无明显变化,且该收缩反应对钙库操纵性通道（store-operated Ca^2＋ channel,socc）阻断剂La^3＋敏感,20,50和100μmol／L的La^3＋使上述收缩张力分别降低15％,23％和36％,且呈浓度依赖性,但对Cd^2＋不敏感。研究结果提示,细胞外Ca^2＋内流对高K^＋及ACh介导的离体远端结肠平滑肌持续性收缩是必需的,由ACh诱导的远端结肠平滑肌收缩至少包括SR释放钙引起的短暂性收缩及受体操纵性Ca^2＋通道（receptor-operated Ca^2＋ channel,ROCC）、电压操纵性Ca^2＋通道（voltage-operated Ca^2＋ channel,VOCC）和CCE介导的胞外Ca^2＋ 内流等途径。这将从通道水平进一步分析消化管平滑肌收缩的机制和特征,亦将为预防和控制因胃肠动力紊乱所致的消化管疾病寻求有针对性的药物干预和治疗提供理论依据。     

Inhibition of lymphoproliferation by a synthetic peptide with sequence identity to gp41 of human immunodeficiency virus type 1.

Peptides were synthesized that contained sequences from two regions (env amino acids [aa] 581 to 597 and 655 to 671) of the transmembrane protein gp41 and one region of the external envelope glycoprotein gp120 (aa 457 to 464) of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Selection of these sequences was based on their homology to the highly conserved and immunosuppressive sequence contained within the transmembrane proteins p15E and gp21 of animal and human retroviruses, respectively. Peptide aa581-597 was found to specifically inhibit human and murine lymphoproliferation, whereas peptides aa655-671 and aa457-464 had no activity. These results suggest a mechanism by which human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp41 exerts a direct immunosuppressive effect in vivo, analogous to that postulated for p15E and gp21, which could contribute to the immune dysfunction observed in patients suffering from acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. It is of particular interest that the sequence aa 584 to 609, shown to contain B- and T-helper-cell epitopes, overlaps with the sequence aa 581 to 597 that is shown here to inhibit lymphoproliferation. The potential implications of this overlap of immunologic activities are discussed.     

Trp1, a candidate protein for the store-operated Ca(2+) influx mechanism in salivary gland cells

The trp gene family has been proposed to encode the store-operated Ca(2+) influx (SOC) channel(s). This study examines the role of Trp1 in the SOC mechanism of salivary gland cells. htrp1, htrp3, and Trp1 were detected in the human submandibular gland cell line (HSG). HSG cells stably transfected with htrp1alpha cDNA displayed (i) a higher level of Trp1, (ii) a 3-5-fold increase in SOC (thapsigargin-stimulated Ca(2+) influx), determined by [Ca(2+)](i) and Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channel current measurements, and (iii) similar basal Ca(2+) permeability, and inhibition of SOC by Gd(3+) but not by Zn(2+), as compared with control cells. Importantly, (i) transfection of HSG cells with antisense trp1alpha cDNA decreased endogenous Trp1 level and significantly attenuated SOC, and (ii) transfection of HSG cells with htrp3 cDNA did not increase SOC. These data demonstrate an association between Trp1 and SOC and strongly suggest that Trp1 is involved in this mechanism in HSG cells. Consistent with this suggestion, Trp1 was detected in the plasma membrane region, the proposed site of SOC, of acinar and ductal cells in intact rat submandibular glands. Based on these aggregate data, we propose Trp1 as a candidate protein for the SOC mechanism in salivary gland cells.     

Polyamines regulate intestinal epithelial restitution through TRPC1-mediated Ca²⁺ signaling by differentially modulating STIM1 and STIM2

Early epithelial restitution occurs as a consequence of intestinal epithelial cell (IEC) migration after wounding, and its defective regulation is implicated in various critical pathological conditions. Polyamines stimulate intestinal epithelial restitution, but their exact mechanism remains unclear. Canonical transient receptor potential-1 (TRPC1)-mediated Ca(2+) signaling is crucial for stimulation of IEC migration after wounding, and induced translocation of stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) to the plasma membrane activates TRPC1-mediated Ca(2+) influx and thus enhanced restitution. Here, we show that polyamines regulate intestinal epithelial restitution through TRPC1-mediated Ca(2+) signaling by altering the ratio of STIM1 to STIM2. Increasing cellular polyamines by ectopic overexpression of the ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) gene stimulated STIM1 but inhibited STIM2 expression, whereas depletion of cellular polyamines by inhibiting ODC activity decreased STIM1 but increased STIM2 levels. Induced STIM1/TRPC1 association by increasing polyamines enhanced Ca(2+) influx and stimulated epithelial restitution, while decreased formation of the STIM1/TRPC1 complex by polyamine depletion decreased Ca(2+) influx and repressed cell migration. Induced STIM1/STIM2 heteromers by polyamine depletion or STIM2 overexpression suppressed STIM1 membrane translocation and inhibited Ca(2+) influx and epithelial restitution. These results indicate that polyamines differentially modulate cellular STIM1 and STIM2 levels in IECs, in turn controlling TRPC1-mediated Ca(2+) signaling and influencing cell migration after wounding.     

Morphological and functional differentiation of HSG cells: role of extracellular matrix and trpc 1

A human salivary intercalated duct cell line (HSG) is capable of morphological change to acinar-type cells, and of salivary amylase (AMY1) expression, by culturing on basement membrane extracts (BME). The aim of this study was to determine the critical conditions for functional and morphological differentiation of HSG cells and to establish if the processes are related. Cells were grown on BMEs that had different protein concentrations and growth factor content, and then examined with respect to morphology and AMY1 expression. To investigate the role of intracellular calcium in amylase expression, a pcDNA3.1-TRPC1alpha construct was used to overexpress htrp1alpha, which mediates the store-operated calcium entry in HSG cells. Expression of the AMY1, TRPC1alpha and beta genes was quantified by means of real time RT-PCR. Growth factor-reduced BME (12.8 mg/ml) induced multicellular acinar structures with lumen formation but without stimulation of either AMY1 or TRPC1. HSG cells cultured on higher concentration BME (17.5 or 16.4 mg/ml) formed reticular networks. AMY1 expression increased both on growth factor-reduced BME (17.5 mg/ml: 3.0-fold, P < 0.001) and on regular BME (16.4 mg/ml: 3.7-fold, P < 0.001) accompanied by a slight increase in expression of TRPC1alpha and TRPC1beta. Overexpression of htrp1alpha did not cause any significant changes in AMY expression, though it attenuated the BME (17.5 mg/ml)-induced AMY1 upregulation. Overall, the higher protein concentration BME favors amylase expression in HSG cells, whereas the lower concentration causes marked morphological changes.     

Differences in STIM1 and TRPC expression in proximal and distal pulmonary arterial smooth muscle are associated with differences in Ca2+ responses to hypoxia

Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV) requires Ca(2+) influx through store-operated Ca(2+) channels (SOCC) in pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMC) and is greater in distal than proximal pulmonary arteries (PA). SOCC may be composed of canonical transient receptor potential (TRPC) proteins and activated by stromal interacting molecule 1 (STIM1). To assess the possibility that HPV is greater in distal PA because store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE) is greater in distal PASMC, we measured intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) and SOCE in primary cultures of PASMC using fluorescent microscopy and the Ca(2+)-sensitive dye fura 2. Both hypoxia (4% O(2)) and KCl (60 mM) increased [Ca(2+)](i). Responses to hypoxia, but not KCl, were greater in distal cells. We measured SOCE in PASMC perfused with Ca(2+)-free solutions containing cyclopiazonic acid to deplete Ca(2+) stores in sarcoplasmic reticulum and nifedipine to prevent Ca(2+) entry through L-type voltage-operated Ca(2+) channels. Under these conditions, the increase in [Ca(2+)](i) caused by restoration of extracellular Ca(2+) and the decrease in fura 2 fluorescence caused by Mn(2+) were greater in distal PASMC, indicating greater SOCE. Moreover, the increase in SOCE caused by hypoxia was also greater in distal cells. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis of PASMC and freshly isolated deendothelialized PA tissue demonstrated expression of STIM1 and five of seven known TRPC isoforms (TRPC1 > TRPC6 > TRPC4 > TRPC3 approximately TRPC5). For both protein, as measured by Western blotting, and mRNA, expression of STIM1, TRPC1, TRPC6, and TRPC4 was greater in distal than proximal PASMC and PA. These results provide further support for the importance of SOCE in HPV and suggest that HPV is greater in distal than proximal PA because greater numbers and activation of SOCC in distal PASMC generate bigger increases in [Ca(2+)](i).     

Overexpression of TRPC3 reduces the content of intracellular calcium stores in HEK-293 cells

The mammalian canonical transient receptor channels (TRPCs) are considered to be candidates for store-operated calcium channels (SOCCs). Many studies have addressed how TRPC3 channels are affected by depletion of intracellular calcium stores. Conflicting results have been shown for TRPC3 regarding its function, and this has been linked to its level of expression in various systems. In the present study, we have investigated how overexpression of TRPC3 interferes with the regulation of intracellular calcium stores. We demonstrate that overexpression of TRPC3 reduces the mobilization of calcium in response to stimulation of the cells with thapsigargin (TG) or the G-protein coupled receptor agonist sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P). Our results indicate that this is the result of the expression of TRPC3 channels in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), thus depleting ER calcium stores. OAG evoked calcium entry in cells overexpressing TRPC3, indicating that functional TRPC3 channels were also expressed in the plasma membrane. Taken together, our results show that overexpression of the putative SOCC, TRPC3, actually reduces the calcium content of intracellular stores, but does not enhance agonist-evoked or store-dependent calcium entry. Our results may, in part, explain the conflicting results obtained in previous studies on the actions of TRPC3 channels.     

A synthetic peptide with sequence identity to the transmembrane protein GP41 of HIV-1 inhibits distinct lymphocyte activation pathways dependent on protein kinase C and intracellular calcium influx.

A synthetic peptide containing env amino acid (aa) sequence 581 to 597 of the transmembrane protein gp41 of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) was tested for its effect on protein kinase C (PKC) and cytoplasmic free Ca2+ [( Ca2+]i) influx-dependent immune functions. We have previously shown that this peptide inhibits PKC-mediated phosphorylation and T-cell receptor-mediated [Ca2+]i influx as well as lymphoproliferation. In this study we demonstrate that the HIV-1 gp41 peptide aa581-597 inhibits lymphoproliferation stimulated via the distinct T-cell-activation molecules CD3, CD2, and CD28, as well as direct stimulation mediated by phorbol ester combined with ionomycin. Further, aa581-597 inhibits both PKC-dependent interleukin 2 (IL 2) production and the [Ca2+]i influx-dependent but PKC-independent induction of IL 2 receptor expression. The HIV-1 gp41 peptide also induces dramatic morphologic changes in lymphocytes, characterized by cytoplasmic ballooning and the acquisition of adherence to plastic, and these changes are dependent on both the length and the temperature of exposure. The results of this study suggest that the HIV-1 gp41 sequence aa581-597 acts at multiple sites to inhibit both PKC activity and [Ca2+]i influx, resulting in the abrogation of several distinct immune functions that are critical for an intact immune response and are defective in HIV-1-infected individuals.     

Ca2+ influx induced by protease-activated receptor-1 activates a feed-forward mechanism of TRPC1 expression via nuclear factor-kappaB activation in endothelial cells

Thrombin activation of protease-activated receptor-1 induces Ca(2+) influx through store-operated cation channel TRPC1 in endothelial cells. We examined the role of Ca(2+) influx induced by the depletion of Ca(2+) stores in signaling TRPC1 expression in endothelial cells. Both thrombin and a protease-activated receptor-1-specific agonist peptide induced TRPC1 expression in human umbilical vein endothelial cells, which was coupled to an augmented store-operated Ca(2+) influx and increase in endothelial permeability. To delineate the mechanisms of thrombin-induced TRPC1 expression, we transfected in endothelial cells TRPC1-promoter-luciferase (TRPC1-Pro-Luc) construct containing multiple nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) binding sites. Co-expression of dominant negative IkappaBalpha mutant prevented the thrombin-induced increase in TRPC1 expression, indicating the key role of NF-kappaB activation in mediating the response. Using TRPC1 promoter-deletion mutant constructs, we showed that NF-kappaB binding sites located between -1623 and -871 in the TRPC1 5'-regulatory region were required for thrombin-induced TRPC1 expression. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay utilizing TRPC1 promoter-specific oligonucleotides identified that the DNA binding activities of NF-kappaB to NF-kappaB consensus sites were located in this domain. Supershift assays using NF-kappaB protein-specific antibodies demonstrated the binding of p65 homodimer to the TRPC1 promoter. Inhibition of store Ca(2+) depletion, buffering of intracellular Ca(2+), or down-regulation of protein kinase Calpha downstream of Ca(2+) influx all blocked thrombin-induced NF-kappaB activation and the resultant TRPC1 expression in endothelial cells. Thus, Ca(2+) influx via TRPC1 is a critical feed-forward pathway responsible for TRPC1 expression. The NF-kappaB-regulated TRPC1 expression may be an essential mechanism of vascular inflammation and, hence, a novel therapeutic target.     

TRPC4 can be activated by G-protein-coupled receptors and provides sufficient Ca(2+) to trigger exocytosis in neuroendocrine cells

Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels form a large family of plasma membrane cation channels. Mammalian members of the "short" TRP family (TRP channel (TRPC) 1-7 are Ca(2+)-permeant, non-selective cation channels that are widely expressed in various cell types, including neurons. TRPC activity is linked through unknown mechanisms to G-protein-coupled receptors or receptor tyrosine kinases that activate phospholipase C. To investigate the properties and function of TRPC4 in neuronally derived cells, we transiently expressed mouse TRPC4 and histamine H(1) receptor in mouse adrenal chromaffin cells and PC12 cells. Histamine, but not thapsigargin, stimulated Mn(2+) influx in transfected cells. In the whole-cell patch clamp mode, histamine triggered a transient current in TRPC4-expressing cells. No current was evoked by perfusion with inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate. When exocytosis was monitored with the capacitance detection technique, the magnitude of the membrane capacitance increase (Delta C(m)) on application of histamine in H(1) receptor/TRPC4-expressing chromaffin cells was comparable with that triggered by a train of depolarizing pulses. Our results indicate that TRPC4 channels behave as receptor, but not store-operated, channels in neuronally derived cells. TRPC4 channels can provide sufficient Ca(2+) influx to trigger a robust secretory response in voltage-clamped neurosecretory cells. Similar mechanisms may modulate exocytosis in other neuronal systems.