Time scales and mechanisms of estuarine variability,a synthesis from studies of San Francisco Bay

This review of the preceding papers suggests that temporal variability in San Francisco Bay can be characterized by four time scales (hours, days-weeks, months, years) and associated with at least four mechanisms (variations in freshwater inflow, tides, wind, and exchange with coastal waters). The best understood component of temporal variability is the annual cycle, which is most obviously influenced by seasonal variations in freshwater inflow. The winter season of high river discharge is characterized by: large-scale redistribution of the salinity field (e.g. the upper estuary becomes a riverine system); enhanced density stratification and gravitational circulation with shortened residence times in the bay; decreased tissue concentrations of some contaminants (e.g. copper) in resident bivalves; increased estuarine inputs of river-borne materials such as dissolved inorganic nutrients (N, P, Si), suspended sediments, and humic materials; radical redistributions of pelagic organisms such as copepods and fish; low phutoplankton biomass and primary productivity in the upper estuary; and elimination of freshwater-intolerant species of macroalgae and benthic infauna from the upper estuary. Other mechanisms modulate this river-driven annual cycle: (1) wind speed is highly seasonal (strongest in summer) and causes seasonal variations in atmosphere-water column exchange of dissolved gases, resuspension, and the texture of surficial sediments; (2) seasonal variations in the coastal ocean (e.g. the spring-summer upwelling season) influence species composition of plankton and nutrient concentrations that are advected into the bay; and (3) the annual temperature cycle influences a few selected features (e.g. production and hatching of copepod resting eggs). Much of the interannual variability in San Francisco Bay is also correlated with freshwater inflow: wet years with persistently high river discharge are characterized by persistent winter-type conditions.Mechanisms of short-term variability are not as well understood, although some responses to storm events (pulses in residual currents from wind forcing, erosion of surficial sediments by wind waves, redistribution of fish populations) and the neap-spring tidal cycle (enhanced salinity stratification, gravitational circulation, and phytoplankton biomass during neap tides) have been quantified. In addition to these somewhat predictable features of variability are (1) largely unexplained episodic events (e.g. anomalous blooms of drift macroalgae), and (2) long-term trends directly attributable to human activities (e.g. introduction of exotic species that become permanent members of the biota).     

Sources and sinks of nitrous oxide (N2O) in deep lakes

As reported from marine systems, we found that also in15 prealpine lakes N₂O concentrations werestrongly correlated with O₂ concentrations. Inoxic waters below the mixed surface layer, N₂Oconcentrations usually increased with decreasingO₂ concentrations. N₂O is produced in oxicepilimnia, in oxic hypolimnia and at oxic-anoxicboundaries, either in the water or at the sediment-waterinterface. It is consumed, however, incompletely anoxic layers. Anoxic water layers weretherefore N₂O undersaturated. All studied lakeswere sources for atmospheric N₂O, including thosewith anoxic, N₂O undersaturated hypolimnia.However, compared to agriculture, lakes seem not tocontribute significantly to atmospheric N₂Oemissions.     

畜禽粪便好氧堆肥过程氧化亚氮排放机制

好氧堆肥是实现畜禽粪便处理及资源化的有效途径,但畜禽粪便好氧堆肥过程是全球温室气体N2O的潜在来源,与全球温室效应和大气臭氧空洞等问题密切相关.随着畜禽养殖规模的扩大和畜禽粪便堆肥产量的急剧提升,畜禽粪便好氧堆肥过程N2O排放问题日趋严重,堆肥过程N2O排放机制机理研究引发学者们的关注.本文综述了畜禽粪便好氧堆肥过程中N2O的产生途径、排放规律、排放影响因素及其相关微生物学机理研究动态,总结了该过程中减排N2O的措施,并对该领域的研究趋势进行了展望.     

干旱胁迫对小麦幼苗根系生长和叶片光合作用的影响

采用水培试验方法,以2个耐旱性不同的小麦品种(敏感型望水白和耐旱型洛旱7号)为材料,研究了干旱胁迫对小麦幼苗根系形态、生理特性以及叶片光合作用的影响,以期揭示小麦幼苗对干旱胁迫的适应机制.结果表明： 干旱胁迫下,2个小麦品种幼苗的根系活力显著增大,而根数和根系表面积受到抑制;干旱胁迫降低了望水白的叶片相对含水量,提高了束缚水/自由水,而对洛旱7号无显著影响;干旱胁迫降低了2个小麦品种叶片的叶绿素含量、净光合速率、蒸腾速率、气孔导度和胞间CO2浓度,但随胁迫时间的延长,洛旱7号的叶绿素含量和净光合速率与对照差异不显著;干旱胁迫降低了2个小麦品种幼苗的单株叶面积,以及望水白的根系、地上部和植株生物量,而对洛旱7号无显著影响.水分胁迫下,耐旱型品种可以通过提高根系活力、保持较高的根系生长量来补偿根系吸收面积的下降,保持较高的根系吸水能力,进而维持较高的光合面积和光合速率,缓解干旱对生长的抑制.     

Nitrous oxide emission factors for agricultural soils in Great Britain: the impact of soil water-filled pore space and other controlling variables

Measurements were made of nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from N‐fertilised ungrazed grassland and arable land at sites widely distributed across Great Britain during 1999–2001. The closed static chamber method was used throughout. Emissions varied widely throughout the year at each site, and between sites. Daily fluxes up to 1200 g N₂O–N ha ^{? 1} d ^{? 1} were recorded. The highest annual flux was 27.6 kg N₂O–N ha ^{? 1} at a grassland site in Wales, whereas the lowest, 1.7 kg N₂O–N ha ^{? 1}, occurred on a soil overlying chalk in southern England. The key factors affecting N₂O emissions from agricultural soil were soil WFPS, temperature and soil NO₃^––N content. On grassland, rainfall (particularly around the time of N application), with its consequent effect on water‐filled pore space (WFPS), was the main driving factor during the growing season. Annual emission factors (EFs), uncorrected for background emission, varied from 0.4 to 6.5% of the nitrogen (N) applied, covering a similar range for grassland to that found previously for sites restricted to Scotland. Continued monitoring at a grassland reference site near Edinburgh showed that annual EFs vary greatly from year to year, even with similar management, and that several years' data are required to produce a robust mean EF. The overall distribution of EFs in this and previous studies was log‐normal. The EFs for small‐grain cereals (and oilseed rape) peaked at a much lower value than those for grassland, whereas the values for leafy vegetables and potato crops fitted well into the grassland distribution. These differences in EF between various types of crop should be taken into account when compiling regional or national N₂O emission inventories.     

中国县域畜禽粪便N2O排放清单

畜禽粪便是我国N₂O两个最大排放源之一.为建立我国畜禽粪便N₂O高分辨率排放清单,选择2008年县域尺度活动数据、具有空间分异性的本土排放因子和参数来评估其排放规模、组分结构、空间格局及不确定性.与基于IPCC、EDGAR等研究结果相比,该排放清单具有更好的可靠性和全面性.我国畜禽粪便2008年N₂O排放总量为572 Gg,其中除了牧场草地粪便之外的畜禽粪便为322 Gg(56.3%),牧场草地畜禽粪便为180 Gg(31.5%),挥发沉降和淋溶径流造成的间接排放分别为45.8 Gg(8.0%)和1.23 Gg(0.2%);排放格局非常集中,主要分布在东北三省、山东、四川、湖南和河南,其累积规模为全国总量的52.4%,其中近50%贡献源于占全国县域数<3%的84个县(区、市、旗);所建立排放清单具有较高的空间分辨率和准确度.与此相比,IPCC对直接排放存在低估,对间接排放存在高估,对排放总量高值区存在低估(-1.5%～-6.0%),低值区存在高估(1.6%～13%);对于贡献最大的排放途径,EDGAR在高值区低估达到-18.8%～-50.0%,在大部分低值区高估达到25%～54.1%.     

Life history evolution and demographic stochasticity

Summary Can demographic stochasticity bias the evolution of life history traits? Under a neutral version of the Cole-Charnov-Schaffer model, variance in offspring number for both annuals and perennials depends on the precise values of fitness components. Either annuals or perennials may have the larger variance (for equal ), depending on the importance of random survivalversus fixed reproduction. By extension, the variance in offspring number should generally depend on whether is mainly composed of highly variable elements or elements with limited variation. Thus, data about the variability of demographic parameters may be as important as data about their mean values.This result concerns only one source of demographic stochasticity, the probabilistic nature of demographic processes like survival. The other source of demographic stochasticity is the fact that populations are composed of whole numbers of individuals (integer arithmetic). Integer arithmetic without probabilistic demography (or environmental variation) can make it difficult for rare invaders to persist in populations even when selection would favour the invaders in a deterministic model. Integer arithmetic can also cause population coexistence when the equivalent deterministic model leads to exclusion. This effect disappears when demography is probabilistic, and probably also when there is environmental variation. Thus probabilistic demography and environmental variation may make some population patterns more, rather than less, understandable.     

Assessment of variability in biomass yield and quality: what is an adequate size of sampling area for miscanthus?

To diversify energy crop production and improve its biodiversity and sustainability, there is currently a search for alternative energy crops. Many of the newly arising alternatives are perennial species such as the C₄ grass miscanthus. The assessment of reliable data is a prerequisite for understanding the performance of these crops and developing corresponding management systems. However there is great uncertainty concerning research methodology for these crops. When data are collected from small plots of perennial crops, such as miscanthus or short rotation coppice plantations, a larger variability is expected than for cereals. A square meter cut, corresponding to harvest practice in cereals, is not sufficient for perennial C₄ grasses and is not recommended for these species. The aim of this research was to identify an adequate size of sampling area for miscanthus to estimate the true biomass yield or quality. For this purpose, whole plots of 10‐ and 14‐year old miscanthus stands were divided into smaller subplots. These were used to calculate variances for various sizes of simulated plots. The variances for all traits in the experiments were rather high when the sampling area was smaller than 2 m². A cutting regime of more than 5.6 m² would be advisable, but an area of 3 m² is sufficient to eliminate approximately 90% of the variances and is therefore an adequate size of sampling area.     

Methane and nitrous oxide exchange in differently fertilised grassland in southern Germany

We examined the effect of fertilisation (200 kg cattle slurry-N ha^–1 year^–1) on the exchange of N₂O and CH₄ in the soil–plant system of meadow agroecosystems in southern Germany. From 1996 to 1998, we regularly determined the gas fluxes (closed chamber method) and associated environmental parameters. N₂O and CH₄ fluxes were not significantly affected by fertilisation. N₂O fluxes at the unfertilised and fertilised plots were small, generally between 50 and –20 g N m^–2 h^–1. We identified some incidents of N₂O uptake. CH₄-C fluxes ranged from 1.3 to –0.2 mg m^–2 h^–1 and were not significantly different from 0 at both plots. We budgeted an annual net emission of 15.5 and 29.6 mg m^–2 N₂O-N and an annual CH₄-C net emission of 184.2 and 122.7 mg m^–2 at the unfertilised and fertilised plots, respectively. Apparently, rapid N mineralization and uptake in the densely rooted topsoil prevents N losses and the inhibition of CH₄ oxidation.     

Spatial Variation in Denitrification and N2O Emission in Relation to Nitrate Removal Efficiency in a N-stressed Riparian Buffer Zone

Spatial variability in hydrological flowpaths and nitrate-removal processes complicates the overall assessment of riparian buffer zone functioning in terms of water quality improvement as well as enhancement of the greenhouse effect by N₂O emissions. In this study, we evaluated denitrification and nitrous oxide emission in winter and summer along two groundwater flowpaths in a nitrate-loaded forested riparian buffer zone and related the variability in these processes to controlling soil factors. Denitrification and emissions of N₂O were measured using flux chambers and incubation experiments. In winter, N₂O emissions were significantly higher (12.4 mg N m⁻² d⁻¹) along the flowpath with high nitrate removal compared with the flowpath with low nitrate removal (2.58 mg N m⁻² d⁻¹). In summer a reverse pattern was observed, with higher N₂O emissions (13.6 mg N m⁻² d⁻¹) from the flowpath with low nitrate-removal efficiencies. Distinct spatial patterns of denitrification and N₂O emission were observed along the high nitrate-removal transect compared to no clear pattern along the low nitrate-removal transect, where denitrification activity was very low. Results from this study indicate that spots with high nitrate-removal efficiency also contribute significantly to an increased N₂O emission from riparian zones. Furthermore, we conclude that high variability in N₂O:N₂ ratio and weak relationships with environmental conditions limit the value of this ratio as a proxy to evaluate the environmental consequences of riparian buffer zones.     

Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from rice paddy fields as affected by nitrogen fertilisers and water management

Methane and N₂O emissions affected by nitrogen fertilisers were measured simultaneously in rice paddy fields under intermittent irrigation in 1994. Ammonium sulphate and urea were applied at rates of 0 (control), 100 and 300 kg N ha^-1. The results showed that CH₄ emission, on the average, decreased by 42 and 60% in the ammonium sulphate treatments and 7 and 14% in the urea treatments at rates of 100 and 300 kg N ha^-1, respectively, compared to the control. N₂O emission increased significantly with the increase in the nitrogen application rate. N₂O emission was higher from ammonium sulphate treatments than from the urea treatments at the same application rate. A trade-off effect between CH₄ and N₂O emission was clearly observed. The N₂O flux was very small when the rice paddy plots were flooded, but peaked at the beginning of the disappearance of floodwater. In contrast, the CH₄ flux peaked during flooding and was significantly depressed by mid-season aeration (MSA). The results suggest that it is important to evaluate the integrative effects of water management and fertiliser application for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions in order to attenuate the greenhouse effect contributed by rice paddy fields.     

Intensive measurement of nitrous oxide emissions from a corn–soybean–wheat rotation under two contrasting management systems over 5 years

No‐tillage (NT), a practice that has been shown to increase carbon sequestration in soils, has resulted in contradictory effects on nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions. Moreover, it is not clear how mitigation practices for N₂O emission reduction, such as applying nitrogen (N) fertilizer according to soil N reserves and matching the time of application to crop uptake, interact with NT practices. N₂O fluxes from two management systems [conventional (CP), and best management practices: NT + reduced fertilizer (BMP)] applied to a corn (Zea mays L.), soybean (Glycine max L.), winter‐wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) rotation in Ontario, Canada, were measured from January 2000 to April 2005, using a micrometeorological method. The superimposition of interannual variability of weather and management resulted in mean monthly N₂O fluxes ranging from − 1.9 to 61.3 g N ha⁻¹ day⁻¹. Mean annual N₂O emissions over the 5‐year period decreased significantly by 0.79 from 2.19 kg N ha⁻¹ for CP to 1.41 kg N ha⁻¹ for BMP. Growing season (May–October) N₂O emissions were reduced on average by 0.16 kg N ha⁻¹ (20% of total reduction), and this decrease only occurred in the corn year of the rotation. Nongrowing season (November–April) emissions, comprised between 30% and 90% of the annual emissions, mostly due to increased N₂O fluxes during soil thawing. These emissions were well correlated (r²= 0.90) to the accumulated degree‐hours below 0 °C at 5 cm depth, a measure of duration and intensity of soil freezing. Soil management in BMP (NT) significantly reduced N₂O emissions during thaw (80% of total reduction) by reducing soil freezing due to the insulating effects of the larger snow cover plus corn and wheat residue during winter. In conclusion, significant reductions in net greenhouse gas emissions can be obtained when NT is combined with a strategy that matches N application rate and timing to crop needs.