Advances in the clinical development of heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) inhibitors in cancers

Hsp90 is an ATP dependent molecular chaperone protein which integrates multiple oncogenic pathways. As such, Hsp90 inhibition is a promising anti-cancer strategy. Several inhibitors that act on Hsp90 by binding to its N-terminal ATP pocket have entered clinical evaluation. Robust pre-clinical data suggested anti-tumor activity in multiple cancer types. Clinically, encouraging results have been demonstrated in melanoma, acute myeloid leukemia, castrate refractory prostate cancer, non-small cell lung carcinoma and multiple myeloma. In breast cancer, proof-of-concept was demonstrated by first generation Hsp90 inhibitors in combination with trastuzumab mainly in human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)+metastatic breast cancer. There are a multitude of second generation Hsp90 inhibitors currently under investigation. To date, however, there is no FDA approved Hsp90 inhibitor nor standardized assay to ascertain Hsp90 inhibition. This review summarizes the current status of both first and second generation Hsp90 inhibitors based on their chemical classification and stage of clinical development. It also discusses the pharmacodynamic assays currently implemented in clinic as well as other novel strategies aimed at enhancing the effectiveness of Hsp90 inhibitors. Ultimately, these efforts will aid in maximizing the full potential of this class of agents. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Heat Shock Protein 90 (HSP90).     

Discovery of novel anti-breast cancer agents derived from deguelin as inhibitors of heat shock protein 90 (HSP90)

A series of O-substituted analogues of the B,C-ring truncated scaffold of deguelin were designed as C-terminal inhibitors of heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) and investigated as novel antiproliferative agents against HER2-positive breast cancer. Among the synthesized compounds, compound 80 exhibited significant inhibition in both trastuzumab-sensitive and trastuzumab-resistant breast cancer cells, whereas compound 80 did not show any cytotoxicity in normal cells. Compound 80 markedly downregulated the expression of the major client proteins of HSP90 in both cell types, indicating that the cytotoxicity of 80 in breast cancer cells is attributed to the destabilization and inactivation of HSP90 client proteins and that HSP90 inhibition represents a promising strategy to overcome trastuzumab resistance. A molecular docking study of 80 with the homology model of a HSP90 homodimer showed that 80 fit nicely in the C-terminal domain with a higher electrostatic complementary score than that of ATP.     

Discovery of novel heat shock protein (Hsp90) inhibitors based on luminespib with potent antitumor activity

A series of isosteric surrogates of the 4-phenyl group in luminespib were investigated as new scaffolds of the Hsp90 inhibitor for the discovery of novel antitumor agents. Among the synthesized surrogates of isoxazole and pyrazole, compounds 4a, 5e and 12b exhibited potent Hsp90 inhibition in ATPase activity and Her2 degradation assays and significant antitumor activity in A2780 and HCT116 cell lines. Animal studies indicated that compared to luminespib, their activities were superior in A2780 or NCI-H1975 tumor xenograft models. A molecular modeling study demonstrated that compound 4a could fit nicely into the N-terminal ATP binding pocket.     

Novel nontoxic heat shock protein 90 inhibitors having selective antiproliferative effect

Almost all heat shock protein 90 inhibitors reported so far, which are natural product derivatives, have problems mainly with toxic side effects, and with bioavailability and solubility. In our earlier studies, we compared the steric conformational structures of substance P[6-11] with our substance P antagonists in silico, and used the diverse biological effects of these compounds as tools in our modeling and design studies for discovering antiproliferative drugs. Here, we present a new synthesized short peptide-derivative compound family that inhibits only the function of the tumor cell's heat shock protein 90 and selectively kills in vitro more cancer cells than normal cells. During the lead generation, we observed that the difference between the most effective inhibitors was only one residue or group that caused diverse effects in vitro on the studied cell lines. According to our in vivo experiments on nude mice bearing lung cancer xenografts, the inhibitors restrained tumor growth, but not caused overt toxicity. We undertook NMR spectroscopy studies to analyze the 3D molecular structural differences of our inhibitors that control their binding to the target molecule. In conclusion, we demonstrated the efficacy of new selective and small molecule anticancerogen heat shock protein 90 inhibitors with peptide nature, without in vivo toxicity on nude mouse xenograft model. Our results also shed light on the mechanism of anticancerogen action of some substance P antagonists and their derivatives.     

Discovery of novel aminoquinazolin-7-yl 6,7-dihydro-indol-4-ones as potent, selective inhibitors of heat shock protein 90

A novel class of Hsp90 inhibitors, structurally distinct from previously reported scaffolds, was developed from rational design and optimization of a compound library screen hit. These aminoquinazoline derivatives, represented by compound 15 (SNX-6833) or 1-(2-amino-4-methylquinazolin-7-yl)-3,6,6-trimethyl-6,7-dihydro-1H-indol-4(5H)-one, selectively bind to Hsp90 and inhibit its cellular activities at concentrations as low as single digit nanomolar.     

Structure based design of heat shock protein 90 inhibitors acting as anticancer agents

Structure based drug design (SBDD) was used to discover heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) inhibitors useful in the treatment of cancer. By using the crystal structure of HSP90-ligand complex (1uyi), a docking model was prepared and was validated by external dataset containing known HSP90 inhibitors. This validated model was then used to virtually screen commercial databases, selected hits of which were bought and sent for real biological evaluation. Further as an alternative method, pharmacophores were generated using crystal structure conformations of ligands in HSP90 complexes (1uyi and 2bz5) and where used for virtual screening. Both cases yielded several hits containing novel scaffolds, particularly compound KHSP8 showed an IC(50) value of 0.902 μM in case of colon cancer (HT29), which is comparable to doxorubicin (0.828 μM). These compounds were being now used as leads for constructing small molecular libraries to get compounds with favourable pharmacokinetics and drug like properties.     

Synthesis and biological evaluation of novobiocin analogues as potential heat shock protein 90 inhibitors

Recent studies have shown that novobiocin (NB), a member of the coumermycin (CA) family of antibiotics with demonstrated DNA gyrase inhibitory activity, inhibits Heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) by binding weakly to a putative ATP-binding site within its C-terminus. To develop more potent HSP90 inhibitors that target this site and to define structure–activity relationships (SARs) for this class of compounds, we have synthesized twenty seven 3-amido-7-noviosylcoumarin analogues starting from NB and CA. These were evaluated for evidence of HSP90 inhibition using several biological assays including inhibition of cell proliferation and cell cycle arrest, induction of the heat shock response, inhibition of luciferase-refolding in vitro, and depletion of the HSP90 client protein c-erbB-2/HER-2/neu (HER2). This SAR study revealed that a substantial increase in biological activity can be achieved by introduction of an indole-2-carboxamide group in place of 4-hydroxy-isopentylbenzamido group at C-3 of NB in addition to removal/derivatization of the 4-hydroxyl group from the coumarin ring. Methylation of the 4-hydroxyl group in the coumarin moiety moderately increased biological activity as shown by compounds 11 and 13. Our most potent new analogue 19 demonstrated biological activities consistent with known HSP90-binding agents, but with greater potency than NB.     

Inhibition of hepatic stellate cell proliferation by heat shock protein 90 inhibitors in vitro

Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) play an important role in the development of hepatic fibrosis. Heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) is essential for the maturation and activity of a varied group of proteins involved in signal transduction and cell cycle regulation. In this study, we found that two Hsp90 inhibitors, VER-49009 and its analog VER-49009M, inhibited the proliferation of hepatic stellate cell line CFSC cells, and both of them induced G2 phase arrest in CFSC cells. Akt expression was decreased by the treatment of Hsp90 inhibitors in CFSC cells. Based on these findings, we propose that the inhibition of Hsp90 might be a rational approach in the prevention of liver fibrosis.     

Synthesis and biological evaluation of 2,4-diaminoquinazoline derivatives as novel heat shock protein 90 inhibitors

Novel 2,4-diaminoquinazoline derivatives originating from a virtual screening approach were designed, synthesized and their biological activities as heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) inhibitors were evaluated. The prepared compounds exhibited significant anti-proliferative activities against DU-145, HT-29, HCT-116, A375P and MCF-7 cancer cell lines. The selected compounds were tested against Her2, a client protein of Hsp90, and showed significant reduction in Her2 protein expression. Compound 6b was found the most potent, reduced Her2 protein expression levels and induced Hsp70 protein expression levels significantly.     

Potential C-terminal-domain inhibitors of heat shock protein 90 derived from a C-terminal peptide helix

Hsp90 is a molecular chaperone implicated in many diseases including cancer and neurodegenerative disease. Most inhibitors target the ATPase site in Hsp90’s N-terminal domain, with relatively few inhibitors of other domains reported to date. Here, we show that peptides derived from a short helix at the C-terminus of Hsp90 show micromolar activity as Hsp90 inhibitors in vitro. These inhibitors do not block the N-terminal domain’s ATP-binding site, and thus are likely to bind at the C-terminal domain. Substitutions and helix stapling were applied to demonstrate structure–activity relationships and improve activity. These helical peptides will help guide the design of a new class of inhibitors of Hsp90’s C-terminal domain.     

Discovery of NMS-E973 as novel,selective and potent inhibitor of heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90)

Novel small molecule inhibitors of heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) were discovered with the help of a fragment based drug discovery approach (FBDD) and subsequent optimization with a combination of structure guided design, parallel synthesis and application of medicinal chemistry principles. These efforts led to the identification of compound 18 (NMS-E973), which displayed significant efficacy in a human ovarian A2780 xenograft tumor model, with a mechanism of action confirmed in vivo by typical modulation of known Hsp90 client proteins, and with a favorable pharmacokinetic and safety profile.     

Discovery of aminoquinolines as a new class of potent inhibitors of heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90): Synthesis, biology, and molecular modeling

The molecular chaperone Hsp90 plays important roles in maintaining malignant phenotypes. Recent studies suggest that Hsp90 exerts high-affinity interactions with multiple oncoproteins, which are essential for the growth of tumor cells. As a result, research has focused on finding Hsp90 probes as potential and selective anticancer agents. In a high-throughput screening exercise, we identified quinoline 7 as a moderate inhibitor of Hsp90. Further hit identification, SAR studies, and biological investigation revealed several synthetic analogs in this series with micromolar activities in both fluorescent polarization (FP) assay and a cell-based Western blot (WB) assay. These compounds represent a new class of Hsp90 inhibitors with simple chemical structures.     

Synthesis and biological evaluation of C-ring truncated deguelin derivatives as heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) inhibitors

Based on the lead compound L-80 (compound 2), a potent heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) inhibitor, a series of C-ring truncated deguelin analogs were designed, synthesized and evaluated for Hypoxia Inducible Factor-1α (HIF-1α) inhibition as a primary screening method. Their structure–activity relationship was investigated in a systematic manner by varying the A/B ring, linker and D/E ring, respectively. Among the synthesized inhibitors, compound 5 exhibited potent HIF-1α inhibition in a dose-dependent manner and significant antitumor activity in human non-small cell lung carcinoma (H1299), with better activities than L-80. It also inhibited in vitro hypoxia-mediated angiogenic processes in human retinal microvascular endothelial cells (HRMEC). The docking study of 5 showed a similar binding mode as L-80: it occupied the C-terminal ATP-binding pocket of HSP90, indicating that the anticancer and antiangiogenic activities of 5 were derived from HIF-1α destabilization by inhibiting the C-terminal ATP-binding site of hHSP90.     

热激蛋白90与中红侧沟茧蜂的发育关系

根据热激蛋白90(the heat shock proteins90,Hsp90)基因序列的保守性,设计引物,采用PCR结合RACE扩增的方法克隆得到中红侧沟茧蜂Microplitis mediatorHaliday Hsp90cDNA全序列,并用半定量RT-PCR的方法研究Hsp90与中红侧沟茧蜂发育及滞育间的关系。结果表明,滞育条件和非滞育条件下,热激和冷激都能诱导Hsp90的表达;不论在滞育还是非滞育条件下,Hsp90表达量均在2龄初期最高,随发育时间的增加逐渐降低,成虫期表达量又显著升高;滞育褐茧在4℃保存初期,Hsp90呈现高表达且随保存时间的增加而降低。     

Neurite outgrowth of NG108-15 cells induced by heat shock protein 90 inhibitors

We previously reported that radicicol (Rad) and geldanamycin (Geld), heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) inhibitors, potentiate neurite growth of cultured sensory neurons from chick embryo. We now show that the antibiotics induce neurite growth in NG108-15 cells. Treatment of the cells with these drugs caused transient decrease in protein levels of Raf1, ERK1/2, phosphorylated ERK1/2, Akt1, and CDK4. The neurite growth of NG108-15 induced by the inhibitors was blocked by actynomycin D, but the neurite growth stimulated by dbcAMP in the cells was not affected. The neurite growth could be due to a change in the synthesis of some specific protein(s) and is speculated to be due to the transient downregulation of particular-signaling molecules stabilized by Hsp90.     

The hexameric structures of human heat shock protein 90

Background

The human 90-kDa heat shock protein (HSP90) functions as a dimeric molecular chaperone. HSP90 identified on the cell surface has been found to play a crucial role in cancer invasion and metastasis, and has become a validated anti-cancer target for drug development. It has been shown to self-assemble into oligomers upon heat shock or divalent cations treatment, but the functional role of the oligomeric states in the chaperone cycle is not fully understood.

Principal Findings

Here we report the crystal structure of a truncated HSP90 that contains the middle segment and the carboxy-terminal domain, termed MC-HSP90. The structure reveals an architecture with triangular bipyramid geometry, in which the building block of the hexameric assembly is a dimer. In solution, MC-HSP90 exists in three major oligomer states, namely dimer, tetramer and hexamer, which were elucidated by size exclusion chromatography and analytical ultracentrifugation. The newly discovered HSP90 isoform HSP90N that lacks the N-terminal ATPase domain also exhibited similar oligomerization states as did MC-HSP90.

Conclusions

While lacking the ATPase domain, both MC-HSP90 and HSP90N can self-assemble into a hexameric structure, spontaneously. The crystal structure of MC-HSP90 reveals that, in addition to the C-terminal dimerization domain, the residue W320 in the M domain plays a critical role in its oligomerization. This study not only demonstrates how the human MC-HSP90 forms a hexamer, but also justifies the similar formation of HSP90N by using 3D modeling analysis.