Isolation and genetic characterization of the Neurospora crassa REV1 and REV7 homologs: evidence for involvement in damage-induced mutagenesis

In a previous paper, we reported that the Neurospora crassa upr-1 gene is a homolog of the yeast gene REV3, which encodes the catalytic subunit of DNA polymerase zeta (polzeta). Characterization of the upr-1 mutant indicated that the UPR1 protein plays a role in DNA repair and mutagenesis. To help understand the mechanisms of mutagenic DNA repair in the N. crassa more extensively, we identified N. crassa homologs of yeast REV1 and REV7 and obtained mutants ncrev1 or ncrev7, which had similar phenotypes to the upr-1 mutant. Mutant carrying ncrev7 was more sensitive to UV and 4NQO, and slightly sensitive to MMS than the wild-type. The sensitivity to UV and MMS of the ncrev1 mutant was moderately higher than that of the wild-type, but the sensitivity to 4NQO of the mutant was similar to that of the wild-type. In reversion assay using testers with base substitution or frameshift mutation at the ad-3A locus, each of ncrev1 and ncrev7 mutants showed lower induced-mutability than the wild-type. Expression of ncrev1 and ncrev7 was found to be UV-inducible like the case of upr-1. Genetic analyses showed that the ncrev7 was identical to mus-26, which belongs to the upr-1 epistasis group, and that the ncrev1 was a newly identified DNA repair gene and designated as mus-42. Interestingly, all three mutants have a normal CPD photolyase gene, however, they showed a partial photoreactivation defect (PPD) phenotype, not completely defective but inefficient in photoreactivation. These results suggest that N. crassa REV homolog genes function in DNA repair and UV mutagenesis through the bypass of (6-4) photoproducts.     

The Neurospora crassa UVS-3 epistasis group encodes homologues of the ATR/ATRIP checkpoint control system

The mutagen sensitive uvs-3 and mus-9 mutants of Neurospora show mutagen and hydroxyurea sensitivity, mutator effects and duplication instability typical of recombination repair and DNA damage checkpoint defective mutants. To determine the nature of these genes we used cosmids from a genomic library to clone the uvs-3 gene by complementation for MMS sensitivity. Mutation induction by transposon insertion and RIP defined the coding sequence. RFLP analysis confirmed that this sequence maps in the area of uvs-3 at the left telomere of LG IV. Analysis of the cDNA showed that the UVS-3 protein contains an ORF of 969 amino acids with one intron. It is homologous to UvsD of Aspergillus nidulans, a member of the ATRIP family of checkpoint proteins. It retains the N' terminal coiled-coil motif followed by four basic amino acids typical of these proteins and shows the highest homology in this region. The uvsD cDNA partially complements the defects of the uvs-3 mutation. The uvs-3 mutant shows a higher level of micronuclei in conidia and failure to halt germination and nuclear division in the presence of hydroxyurea than wild type, suggesting checkpoint defects. ATRIP proteins bind tightly to ATR PI-3 kinase (phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase) proteins. Therefore, we searched the Neurospora genome sequence for homologues of the Aspergillus nidulans ATR, UvsB. A uvsB homologous sequence was present in the right arm of chromosome I where the mus-9 gene maps. A cosmid containing this genomic DNA complemented the mus-9 mutation. The putative MUS-9 protein is 2484 amino acids long with eight introns. Homology is especially high in the C-terminal 350 amino acids that correspond to the PI-3 kinase domain. In wild type a low level of constitutive mRNA is present for both genes. It is transiently induced upon UV exposure.     

The upr-1 gene encodes a catalytic subunit of the DNA polymerase zeta which is involved in damage-induced mutagenesis in Neurospora crassa

The upr-1 mutant was one of the first mutagen-sensitive mutants to be isolated in Neurospora crassa. However, the function of the upr-1 gene has not yet been elucidated, although some genetic and biochemical data have been accumulated. In order to clone the upr-1 gene, we performed a chromosome walk from the mat locus, the closest genetic marker to upr-1 for which a molecular probe was available, towards the centromere, and a chromosomal contig of about 300-400 kb was constructed. Some of these clones complemented the temperature sensitivity of the un-16 mutation, which is located between mat and upr-1. The un-16 gene was sequenced, and localized in the MIPS Neurospora crassa genome database. We then searched the regions flanking un-16 for homologs of known DNA repair genes, and found a gene homologous to the REV3 gene of budding yeast. The phenotype of the upr-1 mutant is similar to that of the yeast rev3 mutant. An ncrev3 mutant carrying mutations in the N. crassa REV3 homolog was constructed using the RIP (repeat-induced point mutation) process. The spectrum of mutagen sensitivity of the ncrev3 mutant was similar to that of the upr-1 mutant. Complementation tests between the upr-1 and ncrev3 mutations indicated that the upr-1 gene is in fact identical to the ncrev3 gene. To clarify the role of the upr-1 gene in DNA repair, the frequency of MMS and 4NQO-induced mutations was assayed using the ad-8 reversion test. The upr-1 mutant was about 10 times less sensitive to both chemicals than the wild type. The expression level of the upr-1 gene is increased on exposure to UV irradiation in the uvs-2 and mus-8 mutants, which belong to postreplication repair group, as well as in the wild type. All these results suggest that the product of the upr-1 gene functions in damage-induced mutagenesis and DNA translesion synthesis in N. crassa.     

Epistatic Grouping of Repair-Deficient Mutants in Neurospora: Comparative Analysis of Two uvs-3 Alleles, uvs-6 and Their mus Double Mutant Strains

The nuclease halo mutant, nuh-4, of Neurospora crassa was identified conclusively as an allele of uvs-3, a gene involved in error-prone DNA repair. Like uvs-3, nuh-4 showed spontaneous mutator effects, and any previous contradictory findings were found to be due to newly arisen mutants. In normal strains the two alleles are noncomplementing and indistinguishable for sensitivity to UV and methyl methanesulfonate (MMS). Like uvs-3, nuh-4 lacked secretion of the extracellular enzyme, DNase A, a Ca⁺⁺-dependent strand-nonspecific endonuclease which was found to be phosphate repressible. However, nuh-4 differed from uvs-3 in showing much higher conidial viability and lower sensitivity to ionizing radiation and mitomycin C.——Epistatic relationships of the two uvs-3 alleles with seven other MMS-sensitive mutants were determined and compared with those of the highly X-ray-sensitive mutant, uvs-6. Three epistatic groups were found, based on survival of double mutant strains relative to that of their component single mutant strains after treatment with MMS. Both, uvs-3 and nuh-4, were epistatic to mus-9 which also is a mutator. None of the three produced viable double mutants in crosses to uvs-6. On the other hand, uvs-6, but not the uvs-3 alleles, was found to be epistatic to mus-7 and mus-10. The excision-defective uvs-2 and mus-8 both showed synergism with the uvs-3 alleles and with uvs-6, forming a third, separate epistatic group.     

Srs2 and RecQ homologs cooperate in mei-3-mediated homologous recombination repair of Neurospora crassa

Homologous recombination and post-replication repair facilitate restart of stalled or collapsed replication forks. The SRS2 gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae encodes a 3′–5′ DNA helicase that functions both in homologous recombination repair and in post-replication repair. This study identifies and characterizes the SRS2 homolog in Neurospora crassa, which we call mus-50. A knockout mutant of N.crassa, mus-50, is sensitive to several DNA-damaging agents and genetic analyses indicate that it is epistatic with mei-3 (RAD51 homolog), mus-11 (RAD52 homolog), mus-48 (RAD55 homolog) and mus-49 (RAD57 homolog), suggesting a role for mus-50 in homologous recombination repair. However, epistasis evidence has presented that MUS50 does not participate in post-replication repair in N.crassa. Also, the N.crassa mus-25 (RAD54 homolog) mus-50 double mutant is viable, which is in contrast to the lethal phenotype of the equivalent rad54 srs2 mutant in S.cerevisiae. Tetrad analysis revealed that mus-50 in combination with mutations in two RecQ homologs, qde-3 and recQ2, is lethal, and this lethality is suppressed by mutation in mei-3, mus-11 or mus-25. Evidence is also presented for the two independent pathways for recovery from camptothecin-induced replication fork arrest: one pathway is dependent on QDE3 and MUS50 and the other pathway is dependent on MUS25 and RECQ2.     

Mutagen sensitivities and mutator effects of MMS-sensitive mutants in Neurospora

7 mus (mutagen-sensitive) mutants of Neurospora crassa, which are more sensitive to the toxic effects of MMS (methyl methanesulfonate) than wild-type, were investigated for cross-sensitivities to other mutagens and inhibitors. These mutants have recently been mapped in 5 new genes, mus-7 to mus-11, and mutant alleles from each gene were checked for their effects on mutation frequencies. It was found that mutants in 3 of these 5 genes showed radiation-induced mutation frequencies similar to wild-type. These included 2 alleles of the gene mus-10, which were cross-sensitive only to UV and were the only mutants that produced some viable ascospores in homozygous crosses. The mutant of the second gene, mus-8, was especially sensitive to UV and mitomycin C and produced slightly reduced frequencies of spontaneous mutation. In contrast, the mutant of the third gene, mus-7, was not UV-sensitive but showed some cross-sensitivity to X-rays; mus-7 was highly sensitive to MMS and also to histidine, which inhibits various repair-defective mutants at concentrations well below those that reduce wild-type growth. None of these mus resemble mutants previously found in Neurospora, nor do they conform clearly to mutant types identified in E. coli or yeast. On the other hand mutants in 2 further genes, mus-11, and especially 2 alleles of mus-9, are very similar to uvs-3 of Neurospora and generally resemble mutants that are considered to be defective in "error-prone" repair. They were UV- as well as X-ray-sensitive, and showed strong spontaneous mutator effects but almost no increase in recessive lethal frequencies in heterokaryons after UV-treatments.     

Identification and characterization of the rlp1+, the novel Rad51 paralog in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe

A new DNA repair gene from fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe rlp1+ (RecA-like protein) has been identified. Rlp1 shows homology to RecA-like proteins, and is the third S. pombe Rad51 paralog besides Rhp55 and Rhp57. The new gene encodes a 363 aa protein with predicted Mr of 41,700 and has NTP-binding motif. The rlp1Delta mutant is sensitive to methyl methanesulfonate (MMS), ionizing radiation (IR), and camptothecin (CPT), although to a lesser extent than the deletion mutants of rhp55+ and rhp51+ genes. In contrast to other recombinational repair mutants, the rlp1Delta mutant does not exhibit sensitivity to UV light and mitomycin C (MMC). Mitotic recombination is moderately reduced in rlp1 mutant. Epistatic analysis of MMS and IR-sensitivity of rlp1Delta mutant indicates that rlp1+ acts in the recombinational pathway of double-strand break (DSB) repair together with rhp51+, rhp55+, and rad22+ genes. Yeast two-hybrid analysis suggests that Rlp1 may interact with Rhp57 protein. We propose that Rlp1 have an accessory role in repair of a subset of DNA damage induced by MMS and IR, and is required for the full extent of DNA recombination and cell survival under condition of a replication fork collapse.     

A eukaryotic gene encoding an endonuclease that specifically repairs DNA damaged by ultraviolet light.

Many eukaryotic organisms, including humans, remove ultraviolet (UV) damage from their genomes by the nucleotide excision repair pathway, which requires more than 10 separate protein factors. However, no nucleotide excision repair pathway has been found in the filamentous fungus Neurospora crassa. We have isolated a new eukaryotic DNA repair gene from N.crassa by its ability to complement UV-sensitive Escherichia coli cells. The gene is altered in a N.crassa mus-18 mutant and responsible for the exclusive sensitivity to UV of the mutant. Introduction of the wild-type mus-18 gene complements not only the mus-18 DNA repair defect of N.crassa, but also confers UV-resistance on various DNA repair-deficient mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and a human xeroderma pigmentosum cell line. The cDNA encodes a protein of 74 kDa with no sequence similarity to other known repair enzymes. Recombinant mus-18 protein was purified from E.coli and found to be an endonuclease for UV-irradiated DNA. Both cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers and (6-4)photoproducts are cleaved at the sites immediately 5' to the damaged dipyrimidines in a magnesium-dependent, ATP-independent reaction. This mechanism, requiring a single polypeptide designated UV-induced dimer endonuclease for incision, is a substitute for the role of nucleotide excision repair of UV damage in N.crassa.     

Genetic analysis of the Neurospora crassa RAD14 homolog mus-43 and the RAD10 homolog mus-44 reveals that they belong to the mus-38 pathway of two nucleotide excision repair systems

Saccharomyces cerevisiae Rad14 and Rad10 proteins are essential for nucleotide excision repair (NER). Rad14 is a UV-damaged DNA binding protein and Rad10 is a structure-specific endonuclease that functions in a complex with Rad1. In this study, we identified and characterized the RAD14 and RAD10 homolog genes in Neurospora crassa, which we named mus-43 and mus-44, respectively. Disruption of mus-43 and mus-44 conferred sensitivity to UV and 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide, but not to methyl methanesulfonate, N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine, camptothecin, hydroxyurea, or bleomycin. The mus-44 mutant was more sensitive to UV than the mus-43 mutant. Genetic analysis indicated that mus-43 and mus-44 are epistatic to mus-38 which is a homolog of the S. cerevisiae RAD1, but not to mus-18 which belongs to a second excision repair pathway. Immunological assays demonstrated that both mus-43 and mus-44 retained the ability to excise UV-induced cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers and 6-4 photoproducts, but that excision ability was completely abolished in the mus-43 mus-18 and mus-44 mus-18 double mutants. These double mutants exhibited extremely high sensitivity to UV. In mus-43 and mus-44 mutants, the UV-induced mutation frequency increased compared to that of the wild-type. The mus-44 mutants also exhibited a partial photoreactivation defect phenotype similar to mus-38. These results suggest that both mus-43 and mus-44 function in the mus-38 NER pathway, but not in the mus-18 excision repair pathway.     

The Drosophila Meiotic Recombination Gene Mei-9 Encodes a Homologue of the Yeast Excision Repair Protein Rad1

Meiotic recombination and DNA repair are mediated by overlapping sets of genes. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, many genes required to repair DNA double-strand breaks are also required for meiotic recombination. In contrast, mutations in genes required for nucleotide excision repair (NER) have no detectable effects on meiotic recombination in S. cerevisiae. The Drosophila melanogaster mei-9 gene is unique among known recombination genes in that it is required for both meiotic recombination and NER. We have analyzed the mei-9 gene at the molecular level and found that it encodes a homologue of the S. cerevisiae excision repair protein Rad1, the probable homologue of mammalian XPF/ERCC4. Hence, the predominant process of meiotic recombination in Drosophila proceeds through a pathway that is at least partially distinct from that of S. cerevisiae, in that it requires an NER protein. The biochemical properties of the Rad1 protein allow us to explain the observation that mei-9 mutants suppress reciprocal exchange without suppressing the frequency of gene conversion.     

A new ultraviolet-light sensitive mutant of Neurospora crassa with unusual photoreactivation property

A mutant, uvs-(SA3B), which shows high sensitivity to UV light segregated among the progeny in a back-cross of a presumptive MMS-sensitive mutant to a wild-type strain. At 37% survival, this mutant was approximately 5 times more sensitive to UV and also 6 times more sensitive to 4-NQO than the wild type. But it was only slightly sensitive to gamma-ray, MMS, MNNG, MTC and histidine. It showed an unusual photoreactivation response. Its time course of photorecovery was similar to the photoreactivation-defective strain upr-1 of Neurospora crassa. Mutation induction by UV at the ad-3 loci in this mutant strain was lower than that at the same loci in the wild-type strain. The uvs-(SA3B) mutant maps between met-1 and col-4 in linkage group IV, and it was not allelic with the mutagen-sensitive mutant mus-8 which is located in this area. We have concluded, therefore, that uvs-(SA3B) has resulted from mutation in a new DNA-repair gene. This new mutant was barren in homozygous crosses.     

Gamma-ray-sensitive mutants of Neurospora crassa with characteristics analogous to ataxia telangiectasia cell lines

Well characterized gamma-ray sensitive mutants of the fungus Neurospora crassa have been screened for characteristics analogous to those of cell lines derived from humans with the genetic disease, ataxia telangiectasia (AT). Two Neurospora mutants, uvs-6 and mus-9, show the AT cell line characteristics of gamma-ray and bleomycin sensitivity, and little or no repression of DNA synthesis following treatment with these agents. Normal human or Neurospora cells show an extensive biphasic DNA synthesis repression (to 50% of control) and when DNA synthesis is analyzed by alkaline sucrose gradient centrifugation, repression of DNA synthesis by low doses of gamma-radiation occurs primarily in low molecular weight (MW) DNA pieces in both organisms. In AT cells and the uvs-6 mutant, no repression in synthesis of low or higher MW DNA is seen at low doses, while the mus-9 mutant shows little repression of high MW DNA, but an intermediate level of low MW DNA synthesis. Both mutants have been shown previously to have an increased level of spontaneous chromosome instability as do AT lines. The uvs-6 and mus-9 mutations are known to be due to two different genes in two different epistatic groups. These results demonstrate that AT-like cellular characteristics can arise from defects in at least two and probably any of several genes, and that lower eukaryotes such as Neurospora can provide an inexpensive and useful model for AT while avoiding the problems inherent in using transformed cell lines.     

Mutations in the dim-1 gene of Neurospora crassa reduce the level of DNA methylation

Mutants that show reduced DNA methylation were identified in a mutant screen based on the assumptions that (i) the nucleoside analog 5-azacytidine (5-azaC) promotes the formation of potentially lethal DNA-methyltransferase adducts; (ii) reduction in DNA methyltransferase will decrease the sensitivity of cells to 5-azaC; and (iii) this potential selective advantage will be enhanced in mutants that are deficient in the repair of 5-azaC-induced DNA damage. Of fifteen potential repair mutants screened for sensitivity to 5-azaC, five (mus-9, mus-10, mus-11, mus-18, and uvs-3) showed moderately increased sensitivity and two (mus-20, mei-3) showed highly increased sensitivity. A mus-20 mutation was used to isolate three non-complementing methylation mutants. The mutations, named dim-1 (defective in methylation), reduced female fertility, reduced methylation by 40–50%, and altered patterns of methylation. In wild-type strains hypomethylation perse fails to alter methylation specificity. We demonstrate a growth-phase-dependent change in methylation patterns, detectable only in hypomethylated DNA from dim ⁺ cultures. This may represent a growth-phase-dependent change in the relative amounts of distinct species of methyltransferase, one of which may be encoded by the dim-1 gene.     

Mutations in the dim-1 gene of Neurospora crassa reduce the level of DNA methylation

Mutants that show reduced DNA methylation were identified in a mutant screen based on the assumptions that (i) the nucleoside analog 5-azacytidine (5-azaC) promotes the formation of potentially lethal DNA-methyltransferase adducts; (ii) reduction in DNA methyltransferase will decrease the sensitivity of cells to 5-azaC; and (iii) this potential selective advantage will be enhanced in mutants that are deficient in the repair of 5-azaC-induced DNA damage. Of fifteen potential repair mutants screened for sensitivity to 5-azaC, five (mus-9, mus-10, mus-11, mus-18, and uvs-3) showed moderately increased sensitivity and two (mus-20, mei-3) showed highly increased sensitivity. A mus-20 mutation was used to isolate three non-complementing methylation mutants. The mutations, named dim-1 (defective in methylation), reduced female fertility, reduced methylation by 40–50%, and altered patterns of methylation. In wild-type strains hypomethylation perse fails to alter methylation specificity. We demonstrate a growth-phase-dependent change in methylation patterns, detectable only in hypomethylated DNA from dim ⁺ cultures. This may represent a growth-phase-dependent change in the relative amounts of distinct species of methyltransferase, one of which may be encoded by the dim-1 gene. Received: 3 January 1998 / Accepted: 26 March 1998     

Functional and physical interaction between Sgs1 and Top3 and Sgs1-independent function of Top3 in DNA recombination repair

A mutant allele of SGS1 of Saccharomyces cerevisiae was identified as a suppressor of the slow-growth phenotype of top3 mutants. We previously reported the involvement of Top3 via the interaction with the N-terminal region of Sgs1 in the complementation of methylmethanesulfonate (MMS) sensitivity and the suppression of hyper recombination of a sgs1 mutant. In this study, we found that several amino acids residues in the N-terminal region of Sgs1 between residues 4 and 33 were responsible for binding to Top3 and essential for complementing the sensitivity to MMS of sgsl cells. Two-hybrid assays suggested that the region of Top3 responsible for the binding to Sgs1 was bipartite, with portion in the N- and C-terminal domains. Although disruption of the SGS1 gene suppressed the semi-lethality of the top3 mutant of strain MR, the sgsl-top3 double mutant grew more slowly and was more sensitive to MMS than the sgsl single mutant, indicating that Top3 plays some role independently of Sgs1. The DNA topoisomerase activity of Top3 was required for the Top3 function to repair DNA damages induced by MMS, as shown by the fact that the TOP3 gene carrying a mutation (Phe for Tyr) at the amino acid residue essential for its activity (residue 356) failed to restore the MMS sensitivity of sgs1-top3 to the level of that of the sgs1 single mutant. Epistatic analysis using the sgs1-top3 double mutant, rad52 mutant and sgs1-top3-rad52 triple mutant indicated that TOP3 belongs to the RAD52 recombinational repair pathway.     

An Apparent Connection between Histidine, Recombination, and Repair in Neurospora

Two mutants of Neurospora crassa, uvs-3 and mei-3, share four properties--UV sensitivity, inhibition by histidine, meiotic blockage when homozygous, and increased duplication instability (due to mitotic crossing over, to deletions or to both). The present paper shows that a third nonallelic mutant, uvs-6, exhibits the same four properties.--Also, the instability of duplications in the absence of any UV-sensitive mutant is increased by the presence of histidine in the growth medium.     

Mutagen sensitivity of Neurospora meiotic mutants

The Neurospora meiotic mutants, mei-1, mei-2, mei-3, and mei-4 were tested for cross sensitivity to mutagens. Mei-2 and mei-3 are sensitive to MMS, gamma-irradiation and histidine. Mei-2 is not sensitive to ultraviolet (UV) at 20 degrees C. Tests with recombinants with crossovers to either side of mei-2 or mei-3 show that these traits are the pleiotropic properties of a single gene which also determines meiotic behavior. The mei-2 gene maps to the right of al-3 on linkage group V. It is not allelic to mus-11. Upon backcrossing, the originally dominant meiotic effect of mei-2 becomes recessive to partially dominant. The histidine sensitivity is recessive.