Configuration of influenza hemagglutinin fusion peptide monomers and oligomers in membranes

The 20 N-terminal residues of the HA2 subunit of influenza hemagglutinin (HA), known as the fusion peptide, play a crucial role in membrane fusion. Molecular dynamics simulations with implicit solvation are employed here to study the structure and orientation of the fusion peptide in membranes. As a monomer the α-helical peptide adopts a shallow, slightly tilted orientation along the lipid tail-head group interface. The average angle of the peptide with respect to membrane plane is 12.4 °. We find that the kinked structure proposed on the basis of NMR data is not stable in our model because of the high energy cost related to the membrane insertion of polar groups. Because hemagglutinin-mediated membrane fusion is promoted by low pH, we examined the effect of protonation of the Glu and Asp residues. The configurations of the protonated peptides were slightly deeper in the membrane but at similar angles. Finally, because HA is a trimer, we modeled helical fusion peptide trimers. We find that oligomerization affects the insertion depth of the peptide and its orientation with respect to the membrane: a trimer exhibits equally favorable configurations in which some or all of the helices in the bundle insert obliquely deep into the membrane.     

A mechanism of protein-mediated fusion: coupling between refolding of the influenza hemagglutinin and lipid rearrangements.

Although membrane fusion mediated by influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) is the best characterized example of ubiquitous protein-mediated fusion, it is still not known how the low-pH-induced refolding of HA trimers causes fusion. This refolding involves 1) repositioning of the hydrophobic N-terminal sequence of the HA2 subunit of HA ("fusion peptide"), and 2) the recruitment of additional residues to the alpha-helical coiled coil of a rigid central rod of the trimer. We propose here a mechanism by which these conformational changes can cause local bending of the viral membrane, priming it for fusion. In this model fusion is triggered by incorporation of fusion peptides into viral membrane. Refolding of a central rod exerts forces that pull the fusion peptides, tending to bend the membrane around HA trimer into a saddle-like shape. Elastic energy drives self-assembly of these HA-containing membrane elements in the plane of the membrane into a ring-like cluster. Bulging of the viral membrane within such cluster yields a dimple growing toward the bound target membrane. Bending stresses in the lipidic top of the dimple facilitate membrane fusion. We analyze the energetics of this proposed sequence of membrane rearrangements, and demonstrate that this simple mechanism may explain some of the known phenomenological features of fusion.     

Length requirements for membrane fusion of influenza virus hemagglutinin peptide linkers to transmembrane or fusion peptide domains

During membrane fusion, the influenza A virus hemagglutinin (HA) adopts an extended helical structure that contains the viral transmembrane and fusion peptide domains at the same end of the molecule. The peptide segments that link the end of this rod-like structure to the membrane-associating domains are approximately 10 amino acids in each case, and their structure at the pH of fusion is currently unknown. Here, we examine mutant HAs and influenza viruses containing such HAs to determine whether these peptide linkers are subject to specific length requirements for the proper folding of native HA and for membrane fusion function. Using pairwise deletions and insertions, we show that the region flanking the fusion peptide appears to be important for the folding of the native HA structure but that mutant proteins with small insertions can be expressed on the cell surface and are functional for membrane fusion. HA mutants with deletions of up to 10 residues and insertions of as many as 12 amino acids were generated for the peptide linker to the viral transmembrane domain, and all folded properly and were expressed on the cell surface. For these mutants, it was possible to designate length restrictions for efficient membrane fusion, as functional activity was observed only for mutants containing linkers with insertions or deletions of eight residues or less. The linker peptide mutants are discussed with respect to requirements for the folding of native HAs and length restrictions for membrane fusion activity.     

Influenza hemagglutinin assumes a tilted conformation during membrane fusion as determined by attenuated total reflection FTIR spectroscopy.

Fusion of influenza virus with target membranes is mediated by an acid-induced conformational change of the viral fusion protein hemagglutinin (HA) involving an extensive reorganization of the alpha-helices. A 'spring-loaded' displacement over at least 100 A provides a mechanism for the insertion of the fusion peptide into the target membrane, but does not explain how the two membranes are brought into fusion contact. Here we examine, by attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, the secondary structure and orientation of HA reconstituted in planar membranes. At neutral pH, the orientation of the HA trimers in planar membranes is approximately perpendicular to the membrane. However, at the pH of fusion, the HA trimers are tilted 55-70 degrees from the membrane normal in the presence or absence of bound target membranes. In the absence of target membranes, the overall secondary structure of HA at the fusion pH is similar to that at neutral pH, but approximately 50-60 additional residues become alpha-helical upon the conformational change in the presence of bound target membranes. These results are discussed in terms of a structural model for the fusion intermediate of influenza HA.     

Structural studies on membrane-embedded influenza hemagglutinin and its fragments.

The mechanism of influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA)-mediated membrane fusion has been inferred in part from studies examining pH-induced structural changes in soluble HA derivatives lacking the viral membrane anchor and, sometimes, the fusion peptide (the C- and N-terminal residues of the HA2 chain, respectively). To reconcile structure-based mechanisms of HA-mediated membrane fusion with structural implications of functional studies performed on membrane-embedded HA, we have undertaken attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopic analyses of membrane-embedded HA (strain X:31) and its fragments reconstituted into supported lipid bilayers. The fragments correspond to proteolytic products with the majority of the HA1 chain and, in some cases, the fusion peptide removed (THA2 and THA2F-, respectively). In combination with R18 fluorescence dequenching to monitor the functional implications of HA1 subunit removal, we have assessed the influence of pH and target membrane presentation on the secondary structures, orientations relative to the membrane, and dynamics of these molecules. We find that X:31 HA is more tilted towards the plane of the membrane under fusion than under resting conditions, that the fitting of HA depends on the presence of the HA1 chain, that the residues connecting the membrane-inserted fusion peptide with the crystallographically determined coiled coil probably adopt an alpha-helical conformation, and that several changes in the secondary structure and the amide H/D exchange kinetics occur as a result of acidification and target membrane presentation, which can be interpreted as small changes and a release of strain in the static and dynamic structure of membrane-bound HA. THA2 mediatcs fusion, but less efficiently and with less pH-selectivity than HA.     

Modeling a spin-labeled fusion peptide in a membrane: implications for the interpretation of EPR experiments

Site-directed spin-labeling and electron paramagnetic resonance are powerful tools for studying structure and conformational dynamics of proteins, especially in membranes. The position of the spin label is used as an indicator of the position of the site to which it is attached. The interpretation of these experiments is based on the assumptions that the spin label does not affect the peptide configuration and that it has a fixed orientation and distance with respect to the protein backbone. Here, the validity of these assumptions is examined through implicit membrane molecular dynamics simulations of the influenza hemagglutinin fusion peptide that has been labeled with methanethiosulfonate spin label. We find that the methanethiosulfonate spin label can occasionally induce peptide orientations that differ from those adopted by the wild-type peptide. Furthermore, the spin-label resides, on average, several Angstroms deeper in the membrane than the corresponding backbone C(alpha)-atom even at sites pointing toward the solvent. The nitroxide spin label exhibits flexibility and adopts various configurations depending on the surrounding residues.     

Studies of the membrane fusion activities of fusion peptide mutants of influenza virus hemagglutinin.

Influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) fuses membranes at endosomal pH by a process which involves extrusion of the NH2-terminal region of HA2, the fusion peptide, from its buried location in the native trimer. We have examined the amino acid sequence requirements for a functional fusion peptide by determining the fusion capacities of site-specific mutant HAs expressed by using vaccinia virus recombinants and of synthetic peptide analogs of the mutant fusion peptides. The results indicate that for efficient fusion, alanine can to some extent substitute for the NH2-terminal glycine of the wild-type fusion peptide but that serine, histidine, leucine, isoleucine, or phenylalanine cannot. In addition, mutants containing shorter fusion peptides as a result of single amino acid deletions are inactive, as is a mutant containing an alanine instead of a glycine at HA2 residue 8. Substitution of the glycine at HA2 residue 4 with an alanine increases the pH of fusion, and valine-for-glutamate substitutions at HA2 residues 11 and 15 are without effect. We confirm previous reports on the need for specific HAo cleavage to generate functional HAs, and we show that both inappropriately cleaved HA and mutant HAs, irrespective of their fusion capacities, upon incubation at low pH undergo the structural transition required for fusion.     

Plasticity of influenza haemagglutinin fusion peptides and their interaction with lipid bilayers

A detailed molecular dynamics study of the haemagglutinin fusion peptide (N-terminal 20 residues of the HA2 subunits) in a model bilayer has yielded useful information about the molecular interactions leading to insertion into the lipids. Simulations were performed on the native sequence, as well as a number of mutant sequences, which are either fusogenic or nonfusogenic. For the native sequence and fusogenic mutants, the N-terminal 11 residues of the fusion peptides are helical and insert with a tilt angle of approximately 30 degrees with respect to the membrane normal, in very good agreement with experimental data. The tilted insertion of the native sequence peptide leads to membrane bilayer thinning and the calculated order parameters show larger disorder of the alkyl chains. These results indicate that the lipid packing is perturbed by the fusion peptide and could be used to explain membrane fusion. For the nonfusogenic sequences investigated, it was found that most of them equilibrate parallel to the interface plane and do not adopt a tilted conformation. The presence of a charged residue at the beginning of the sequence (G1E mutant) resulted in a more difficult case, and the outcomes do not fall straightforwardly into the general picture. Sequence searches have revealed similarities of the fusion peptide of influenza haemagglutinin with peptide sequences such as segments of porin, amyloid alpha eta peptide, and a peptide from the prion sequence. These results confirm that the sequence can adopt different folds in different environments. The plasticity and the conformational dependence on the local environment could be used to better understand the function of fusion peptides.     

Stochastic Fusion Simulations and Experiments Suggest Passive and Active Roles of Hemagglutinin during Membrane Fusion

Influenza enters the host cell cytoplasm by fusing the viral and host membrane together. Fusion is mediated by hemagglutinin (HA) trimers that undergo conformational change when acidified in the endosome. It is currently debated how many HA trimers, w, and how many conformationally changed HA trimers, q, are minimally required for fusion. Conclusions vary because there are three common approaches for determining w and q from fusion data. One approach correlates the fusion rate with the fraction of fusogenic HA trimers and leads to the conclusion that one HA trimer is required for fusion. A second approach correlates the fusion rate with the total concentration of fusogenic HA trimers and indicates that more than one HA trimer is required. A third approach applies statistical models to fusion rate data obtained at a single HA density to establish w or q and suggests that more than one HA trimer is required. In this work, all three approaches are investigated through stochastic fusion simulations and experiments to elucidate the roles of HA and its ability to bend the target membrane during fusion. We find that the apparent discrepancies among the results from the various approaches may be resolved if nonfusogenic HA participates in fusion through interactions with a fusogenic HA. Our results, based on H3 and H1 serotypes, suggest that three adjacent HA trimers and one conformationally changed HA trimer are minimally required to induce membrane fusion (w = 3 and q = 1).     

Stochastic Fusion Simulations and Experiments Suggest Passive and Active Roles of Hemagglutinin during Membrane Fusion

Influenza enters the host cell cytoplasm by fusing the viral and host membrane together. Fusion is mediated by hemagglutinin (HA) trimers that undergo conformational change when acidified in the endosome. It is currently debated how many HA trimers, w, and how many conformationally changed HA trimers, q, are minimally required for fusion. Conclusions vary because there are three common approaches for determining w and q from fusion data. One approach correlates the fusion rate with the fraction of fusogenic HA trimers and leads to the conclusion that one HA trimer is required for fusion. A second approach correlates the fusion rate with the total concentration of fusogenic HA trimers and indicates that more than one HA trimer is required. A third approach applies statistical models to fusion rate data obtained at a single HA density to establish w or q and suggests that more than one HA trimer is required. In this work, all three approaches are investigated through stochastic fusion simulations and experiments to elucidate the roles of HA and its ability to bend the target membrane during fusion. We find that the apparent discrepancies among the results from the various approaches may be resolved if nonfusogenic HA participates in fusion through interactions with a fusogenic HA. Our results, based on H3 and H1 serotypes, suggest that three adjacent HA trimers and one conformationally changed HA trimer are minimally required to induce membrane fusion (w = 3 and q = 1).     

Correlation between fusogenicity of synthetic modified peptides corresponding to the NH2-terminal extremity of simian immunodeficiency virus gp32 and their mode of insertion into the lipid bilayer: an infrared spectroscopy study.

The amino-terminal extremity of the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) transmembrane protein (gp32) has been shown to play a pivotal role in cell-virus fusion and syncytium formation. We provide here evidence of a correlation between the structure and orientation of the modified SIV fusion peptide after insertion into the lipid membrane and its fusogenic activity. The sequence of the wild-type SIV peptide has been modified in such a way that the calculated angles of insertion correspond to an oblique, parallel, or normal orientation with respect to the lipid-water interface. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was used to gain experimental informations about the structures and orientations, of the membrane-inserted peptides with respect to the lipid acyl chains. The peptides adopt mainly a beta-sheet conformation in the absence of lipids. After interaction with large unilamellar liposomes, this beta sheet is partly converted into alpha helix. The ability of the modified peptides to promote lipid mixing was assessed by a fluorescence energy transfer assay. The data provide evidence that alpha-helix formation is not sufficient to induce lipid mixing and that the fusogenic activity of the peptide depends on its orientation in the lipid bilayer.     

Secondary structure, orientation, oligomerization, and lipid interactions of the transmembrane domain of influenza hemagglutinin

Influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA), the viral envelope glycoprotein that mediates fusion between the viral and cellular membranes, is a homotrimer of three subunits, each containing two disulfide-linked polypeptide chains, HA(1) and HA(2). Each HA(2) chain spans the viral membrane with a single putative transmembrane alpha-helix near its C-terminus. Fusion experiments with recombinant HAs suggest that this sequence is required for a late step of membrane fusion, as a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored analogue of HA only mediates "hemifusion" of membranes, i.e., the merging of the proximal, but not distal, leaflets of the two juxtaposed lipid bilayers [Kemble et al. (1994) Cell 76, 383-391]. To find a structural explanation for the function of the transmembrane domain of HA(2) in membrane fusion, we have studied the secondary structure, orientation, oligomerization, and lipid interactions of a synthetic peptide representing the transmembrane segment of X:31 HA (TMX31) by circular dichroism and attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and by gel electrophoresis. The peptide was predominantly alpha-helical in detergent micelles and in phospholipid bilayers. The helicity was increased in lipid bilayers composed of acidic lipids compared to pure phosphatidylcholine bilayers. In planar lipid bilayers, the helices were oriented close to the membrane normal. TMX31 aggregated into small heat-resistant oligomers composed of two to five subunits in SDS micelles. Amide hydrogen exchange experiments indicated that a large fraction of the helical residues were accessible to water, suggesting the possibility that TMX31 forms pores in lipid bilayers. Finally, the peptide increased the acyl chain order in lipid bilayers, which may be related to the preferential association of HA with lipid "rafts" in the cell surface and which may be an important prerequisite for complete membrane fusion.     

Effects of alterations of the amino-terminal glycine of influenza hemagglutinin fusion peptide on its structure,organization and membrane interactions

Mutations of the glycine residue at the amino terminus of HA2 have been shown to have a large effect on the fusion activity of HA2, the extent of which apparently correlates with the side chain bulkiness of the substituting amino acids. To investigate into the cause of abrogation in fusogenicity and virus-promoted fusion mechanism, we synthesized several peptides in which this glycine was substituted by serine, glutamic acid, or lysine. 1,2-Dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC) and 1,2-dimyristoyl sn-glycero-3-phosphoglycerol (DMPG) were used as model membranes in the fluorescence, circular dichroism (CD), and FTIR measurements while sodium dodecyl sulfate was used in NMR studies. We found that, for the less active variants, affinity to membrane, degree of solvent dehydration, lipid perturbation, depth of insertion, and helicity were less. Comparison of affinity to membrane bilayer among these analogs revealed that binding of the fusion peptide is determined largely by the hydrophobic effect. Additionally, the orientation is closer to the membrane normal for the wild-type fusion peptide in the helix form while the inactive analogs inserted more parallel to the membrane surface.     

Three conserved C-terminal residues of influenza fusion peptide alter its behavior at the membrane interface

The N-terminal fragment of the viral hemagglutinin HA2 subunit is termed a fusion peptide (HAfp). The 23-amino acid peptide (HAfp1-23) contains three C-terminal W21-Y22-G23 residues which are highly conserved among serotypes of influenza A and has been shown to form a tight helical hairpin very distinct from the boomerang structure of HAfp1-20. We studied the effect of peptide length on fusion properties, structural dynamics, and binding to the membrane interface. We developed a novel fusion visualization assay based on FLIM microscopy on giant unilamellar vesicles (GUV). By means of molecular dynamics simulations and spectroscopic measurements, we show that the presence of the three C-terminal W21-Y22-G23 residues promotes the hairpin formation, which orients perpendicularly to the membrane plane and induces more disorder in the surrounding lipids than the less structured HAfp1-20. Moreover, we report cholesterol-enriched domain formation induced exclusively by the longer fusion peptide.     

Structural characterization of an early fusion intermediate of influenza virus hemagglutinin

The hemagglutinin (HA) envelope protein of influenza virus mediates viral entry through membrane fusion in the acidic environment of the endosome. Crystal structures of HA in pre- and postfusion states have laid the foundation for proposals for a general fusion mechanism for viral envelope proteins. The large-scale conformational rearrangement of HA at low pH is triggered by a loop-to-helix transition of an interhelical loop (B loop) within the fusion domain and is often referred to as the "spring-loaded" mechanism. Although the receptor-binding HA1 subunit is believed to act as a "clamp" to keep the B loop in its metastable prefusion state at neutral pH, the "pH sensors" that are responsible for the clamp release and the ensuing structural transitions have remained elusive. Here we identify a mutation in the HA2 fusion domain from the influenza virus H2 subtype that stabilizes the HA trimer in a prefusion-like state at and below fusogenic pH. Crystal structures of this putative early intermediate state reveal reorganization of ionic interactions at the HA1-HA2 interface at acidic pH and deformation of the HA1 membrane-distal domain. Along with neutralization of glutamate residues on the B loop, these changes cause a rotation of the B loop and solvent exposure of conserved phenylalanines, which are key residues at the trimer interface of the postfusion structure. Thus, our study reveals the possible initial structural event that leads to release of the B loop from its prefusion conformation, which is aided by unexpected structural changes within the membrane-distal HA1 domain at low pH.     

Membrane binding of pH-sensitive influenza fusion peptides. positioning, configuration, and induced leakage in a lipid vesicle model

pH-sensitive HA2 fusion peptides from influenza virus hemagglutinin have potential as endosomal escape-inducing components in peptide-based drug delivery. Polarized light spectroscopy and tryptophan fluorescence were used to assess the conformation, orientation, effect on lipid order, and binding kinetics of wild-type peptide HA2(1-23) and a glutamic acid-enriched analogue (INF7) in large unilamellar POPC or POPC/POPG (4:1) lipid vesicles (LUVs). pH-sensitive membrane leakage was established for INF7 but not HA2(1-23) using an entrapped-dye assay. A correlation is indicated between leakage and a low degree of lipid chain order (assessed by linear dichroism, LD, of the membrane orientation probe retinoic acid). Both peptides display poor alignment in zwitterionic POPC LUVs compared to POPC/POPG (4:1) LUVs, and it was found that peptide-lipid interactions display slow kinetics (hours), resulting in reduced lipid order and increased tryptophan shielding. At pH 7.4, INF7 displays tryptophan emission and LD features indicative of a surface-orientated peptide, suggesting that its N-terminal glutamic acid residues prevent deep penetration into the hydrocarbon core. At pH 5.0, INF7 displays weaker LD signals, indicating poor orientation, possibly due to aggregation. By contrast, the orientation of the HA2(1-23) peptide backbone supports previously reported oblique insertion ( approximately 60-65 degrees relative to the membrane normal), and aromatic side-chain orientations are consistent with an interfacial (pH-independent) location of the C-terminus. We propose that a conformational change upon reduction of pH is limited to minor rearrangements of the peptide "hinge region" around Trp14 and repositioning of this residue.     

Membrane fusion induced by a short fusogenic peptide is assessed by its insertion and orientation into target bilayers.

To clarify the molecular mechanism by which an amphipathic negatively charged peptide consisting of 11 residues (WAE) induces fusion, and the relevance of these features for fusion, its mode of insertion and orientation into target bilayers were investigated. Using attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) in combination with techniques based on tryptophan fluorescence, the peptide was found to form an alpha-helix, shallowly inserted into the membrane to which it is anchored. Interestingly, in the presence of target membranes, WAE inserts into the target bilayer as an alpha-helix oriented almost parallel to the lipid acyl chains. The accessibility of the peptide to either acrylamide (as an aqueous quencher of Trp fluorescence) or deuterium oxide (on the course of an FTIR deuteration kinetics) was lower in the presence than in the absence of target membranes, confirming that under those conditions, the peptide was shielded from the aqueous environment. Since fusion experiments have shown a temperature dependence, the effect of this later parameter on the structure and mode of insertion of the peptide was also analyzed. In the presence of target membrane, but not in their absence, the amount of alpha-helical structure increased with temperature, reflecting a similar temperature-dependent increase in the rate and extent of WAE-induced fusion. Also, the extent of penetration of the helix into the target membrane was greater at 37 degrees C than at lower temperatures. This temperature-dependent distinction was revealed by a decreased accessibility of the peptide to deuterium oxide and acrylamide at 37 degrees C as compared to that at lower temperatures. These data underscore the role of peptide structure, peptide penetration, and orientation in the mechanism of protein-induced membrane fusion.     

Implicit solvent model studies of the interactions of the influenza hemagglutinin fusion peptide with lipid bilayers

The "fusion peptide," a segment of approximately 20 residues of the influenza hemagglutinin (HA), is necessary and sufficient for HA-induced membrane fusion. We used mean-field calculations of the free energy of peptide-membrane association (DeltaG(tot)) to deduce the most probable orientation of the fusion peptide in the membrane. The main contributions to DeltaG(tot) are probably from the electrostatic (DeltaG(el)) and nonpolar (DeltaG(np)) components of the solvation free energy; these were calculated using continuum solvent models. The peptide was described in atomic detail and was modeled as an alpha-helix based on spectroscopic data. The membrane's hydrocarbon region was described as a structureless slab of nonpolar medium embedded in water. All the helix-membrane configurations, which were lower in DeltaG(tot) than the isolated helix in the aqueous phase, were in the same (wide) basin in configurational space. In each, the helix was horizontally adsorbed at the water-bilayer interface with its principal axis parallel to the membrane plane, its hydrophobic face dissolved in the bilayer, and its polar face in the water. The associated DeltaG(tot) value was approximately -8 to -10 kcal/mol (depending on the rotameric state of one of the phenylalanine residues). In contrast, the DeltaG(tot) values associated with experimentally observed oblique orientations were found to be near zero, suggesting they are marginally stable at best. The theoretical model did not take into account the interactions of the polar headgroups with the peptide and peptide-induced membrane deformation effects. Either or both may overcompensate for the DeltaG(tot) difference between the horizontal and oblique orientations.     

Characterization of a structural intermediate of flavivirus membrane fusion

Viral membrane fusion proceeds through a sequence of steps that are driven by triggered conformational changes of viral envelope glycoproteins, so-called fusion proteins. Although high-resolution structural snapshots of viral fusion proteins in their prefusion and postfusion conformations are available, it has been difficult to define intermediate structures of the fusion pathway because of their transient nature. Flaviviruses possess a class II viral fusion protein (E) mediating fusion at acidic pH that is converted from a dimer to a trimer with a hairpin-like structure during the fusion process. Here we show for tick-borne encephalitis virus that exposure of virions to alkaline instead of acidic pH traps the particles in an intermediate conformation in which the E dimers dissociate and interact with target membranes via the fusion peptide without proceeding to the merger of the membranes. Further treatment to low pH, however, leads to fusion, suggesting that these monomers correspond to an as-yet-elusive intermediate required to convert the prefusion dimer into the postfusion trimer. Thus, the use of nonphysiological conditions allows a dissection of the flavivirus fusion process and the identification of two separate steps, in which membrane insertion of multiple copies of E monomers precedes the formation of hairpin-like trimers. This sequence of events provides important new insights for understanding the dynamic process of viral membrane fusion.