Chloroplast evolution in algae and land plants

Eukaryotes contain a chimeric assembly of genomes, each localized in a specialized subcellular compartment. The successful survival of an organism requires that these sequestered genomes be viewed as dependent variables in a coevolutionary complex. This discussion focuses on chloroplast evolution. A selected review of information available on chloroplast diversity is presented, followed by an analysis of the genetic modifications which may have occurred in the conversion of a free-living ancestral photosynthetic prokaryote into an organelle that has an obligately dependent and highly efficient interplay with the nuclear genome.     

Green algae to land plants: An evolutionary transition

Studies focused upon the evolutionary transition from ancestral green algae to the earliest land plants are important from a range of ecological, molecular and evolutionary perspectives. A substantial suite of ultrastructural, biochemical and molecular data supports the concept that land plants (embryophytes) are monophyletically derived from an ancestral charophycean alga. However, the details of phylogenetic branching patterns linking extant charophytes and seedless embryophytes are currently unclear. Moreover, the fossil record has so far been mute regarding the algae-land plant transition. Nevertheless, an accurate reflection of major evolutionary events in the history of the earliest land plants can be obtained by comparative paleontological-neontological studies, and comparative molecular, cellular and developmental investigations of extant charophytes and bryophytes. This review focuses upon research progress toward understanding three clade-specific adaptations that were important in the successful colonization of land by plants: the histogenetic apical meristem, the matrotrophic embryo, and decay-resistant cell wall polymers.     

轮藻和陆地植物系统发育及其进化

Charophytic algae and land plants together make up a monophyletic group, streptophytes, which represents one of the main lineages of multicellular eukaryotes and has contributed greatly to the change of the environment on earth in the Phanerozoic Eon. Significant progress has been made to understand phylogenetic relationships among members of this group by phylogenetic studies of morphological and molecular data over the last twenty-five years. Mesostigma viride is now regarded as among the earliest diverging unicellular organisms in streptophytes. Characeae are the sister group to land plants. Liverworts represent the first diverging lineage of land plants. Hornworts and lycophytes are extant representatives of bryophytes and vascular plants, respectively, when early land plants changed from gametophyte to sporophyte as the dominant generation in the life cycle. Equisetum, Psilotaceae, and ferns constitute the monophyletic group of monilophytes, which are sister to seed plants. Gnetales are related to conifers, not to angiosperms as previously thought. Amborella, Nymphaeales, Hydatellaceae, Illiciales, Trimeniaceae, and Austrobaileya represent the earliest diverging lineages of extant angiosperms. These phylogenetic results, together with recent progress on elucidating genetic and developmental aspects of the plant life cycle, multicellularity, and gravitropism, will facilitate evolutionary developmental studies of these key traits, which will help us to gain mechanistic understanding on how plants adapted to environmental challenges when they colonized the land during one of the major transitions in evolution of life.     

Green land: Multiple perspectives on green algal evolution and the earliest land plants

Green plants, broadly defined as green algae and the land plants (together, Viridiplantae), constitute the primary eukaryotic lineage that successfully colonized Earth's emergent landscape. Members of various clades of green plants have independently made the transition from fully aquatic to subaerial habitats many times throughout Earth's history. The transition, from unicells or simple filaments to complex multicellular plant bodies with functionally differentiated tissues and organs, was accompanied by innovations built upon a genetic and phenotypic toolkit that have served aquatic green phototrophs successfully for at least a billion years. These innovations opened an enormous array of new, drier places to live on the planet and resulted in a huge diversity of land plants that have dominated terrestrial ecosystems over the past 500 million years. This review examines the greening of the land from several perspectives, from paleontology to phylogenomics, to water stress responses and the genetic toolkit shared by green algae and plants, to the genomic evolution of the sporophyte generation. We summarize advances on disparate fronts in elucidating this important event in the evolution of the biosphere and the lacunae in our understanding of it. We present the process not as a step-by-step advancement from primitive green cells to an inevitable success of embryophytes, but rather as a process of adaptations and exaptations that allowed multiple clades of green plants, with various combinations of morphological and physiological terrestrialized traits, to become diverse and successful inhabitants of the land habitats of Earth.     

Asymmetric cell division in land plants and algae: the driving force for differentiation

Asymmetric cell division generates two cells with different fates and has an important role in plant development. It produces distinct cell types and new organs, and maintains stem cell niches. To handle the constraints of having immobile cells, plants possess numerous unique features to obtain asymmetry, such as specific regulators of intrinsic polarity. Although several components have not yet been identified, new findings, together with knowledge from different developmental systems, now allow us to take an important step towards a mechanistic overview of asymmetric cell division in plants and algae. Strikingly, several key regulators are used for different developmental processes, and common mechanisms can be recognized.     

Enzymes related to lactate metabolism in green algae and lower land plants

Cell-free extracts of Chlorella pyrenoidosa contained two enzymes capable of oxidizing d-lactate; these were glycolate dehydrogenase and NAD(+)-dependent d-lactate dehydrogenase. The two enzymes could be distinguished by differential centrifugation, glycolate dehydrogenase being largely particulate and NAD(+)-d-lactate dehydrogenase being soluble. The reduction of pyruvate by NADH proceeded more rapidly than the reverse reaction, and the apparent Michaelis constants for pyruvate and NADH were lower than for d-lactate and NAD(+). These data indicated that under physiological conditions, the NAD(+)-linked d-lactate dehydrogenase probably functions to produce d-lactate from pyruvate.Lactate dehydrogenase activity dependent on NAD(+) was found in a number of other green algae and in the green tissues of a few lower land plants. When present in species which contain glycolate oxidase rather than glycolate dehydrogenase, the enzyme was specific for l-lactate rather than d-lactate. A cyclic system revolving around the production and utilization of d-lactate in some species and l-lactate in certain others is proposed.     

球状绿藻的隐性生物多样性及其分类学进展

球状绿藻主要指绿藻门中多为单细胞, 形状为球形、近球形, 或由球形衍生出来的其他形状的藻类。球状绿藻分布广泛, 遍布全球, 生活于淡水、海水和亚气生等生境中, 其相似的简单形态下隐藏着复杂的物种多样性。球状绿藻分类学上主要位于绿藻门的两纲四目及其一些独立支系的类群。球状绿藻分类学正由传统的基于形态特征向基于分子信息的复合分类方法转变。球状绿藻隐性的物种多样性涉及约40属, 其中15属是依据新标本材料而建立的新属, 12个属是依据新证据建立的新组合。本文重点介绍了1998年以后在共球藻纲和绿藻纲中新发现和命名的单细胞球状绿藻, 介绍了它们的形态特征、分类学迁移及理由, 特别对常见的小球藻属和栅藻属的分类学概念变迁作了详细介绍, 对一些尚没有中文名的拉丁学名给出了中文命名。另外, 本文讨论了基于DNA的分类学方法在球状绿藻分类学中的应用, 目前系统发育位置的不同已经成为球状绿藻分类的主要依据。目前球状绿藻分类面临的问题是大多分类位置未用分子系统发育方法的验证。 未来, 球状绿藻分类学家应用系统发育研究结合形态学研究探索单细胞球状绿藻的生物多样性。     

Malic enzymes of higher plants: characteristics, regulation, and physiological function

The characteristics and distribution of the malic enzyme in plants is discussed as well as those features which appear to be limited to the plant NAD malic enzyme. Regulation of the malic enzyme as it relates to the physiological roles of this enzyme is also discussed.     

Urea-degrading enzymes in algae

Extracts prepared from 10 bacteria-free algal cultures and 4 naturally occurring seaweeds were examined for urease and ATP-urea amidolyase (UAL-ase) activities. UAL-ase activity is confined to members of the classes Volvocales, Chlorococcales and Chaetophorales in the Chlorophyceae. Members of the Ulotrichales may possess either urease or UAL-ase. Ulva contains urease. All other algae, so far examined, which can grow with urea as nitrogen source contain urease but not UAL-ase.     

Hydrogenobacter thermophilus: its unusual physiological properties and phylogenic position in the microbial world

Abstract Hydrogenobacter thermophilus (IAM12695) is an obligately autotrophic, thermophilic and aerobic hydrogen-oxidizing bacterium. Chemotaxonomic studies revealed various unusual features of this microorganism. H. thermophilus operates a reductive TCA cycle, which is the only confirmed example of the operation of a non-Calvin type carbon dioxide fixation pathway among aerobic organisms. Isolation of strains similar to Hydrogenobacter from different areas suggests a possible role of these microorganisms as primary producers of organic compounds from carbon dioxide in geothermal and/or aquatic environments.     

Green algae and the evolution of land plants: inferences from nuclear-encoded rRNA gene sequences.

Phylogenetic analysis of 381 informative sites in partial sequences of nuclear-encoded large and small subunit ribosomal RNAs from 38 chlorophyll a- and b-containing plants (Chlorobionta sensu Bremer) including tracheophytes, bryophytes, charophytes and chlorophytes, supports the hypotheses of: (1) monophyly of the green plants (excluding Euglenophyta); (2) monophyly of the embryophytes; (3) non-monophyly of the bryophytes; (4) monophyly of the tracheophytes; and (5) a single origin of embryophytes from charophycean green algae. The Charales and Klebsormidium appear to be the green algae most closely related to the land plants. The unexpected basal divergence of Coleochaete and the apparent non-monophyly of the Zygnematales are not robustly supported and, thus, are interpreted to be sources of new questions, rather than new phylogenetic hypotheses.     

Fibulins: physiological and disease perspectives

The fibulins are a family of proteins that are associated with basement membranes and elastic extracellular matrix fibres. This review summarizes findings from studies of animal models of fibulin deficiency, human fibulin gene mutations, human tumours and injury models that have advanced our understanding of the normal and pathological roles of members of this formerly obscure family.     

N-glycoproteomics in plants: perspectives and challenges

In eukaryotes, proteins that are secreted into the ER are mostly modified by N-glycans on consensus NxS/T sites. The N-linked glycan subsequently undergoes varying degrees of processing by enzymes which are spatially distributed over the ER and the Golgi apparatus. The post-ER N-glycan processing to complex glycans differs between animals and plants, with consequences for N-glycan and glycopeptide isolation and characterization of plant glycoproteins. Here we describe some recent developments in plant glycoproteomics and illustrate how general and plant specific technologies may be used to address different important biological questions.     

POT1 proteins in green algae and land plants: DNA-binding properties and evidence of co-evolution with telomeric DNA

Telomeric DNA terminates with a single-stranded 3′ G-overhang that in vertebrates and fission yeast is bound by POT1 (Protection Of Telomeres). However, no in vitro telomeric DNA binding is associated with Arabidopsis POT1 paralogs. To further investigate POT1–DNA interaction in plants, we cloned POT1 genes from 11 plant species representing major branches of plant kingdom. Telomeric DNA binding was associated with POT1 proteins from the green alga Ostreococcus lucimarinus and two flowering plants, maize and Asparagus. Site-directed mutagenesis revealed that several residues critical for telomeric DNA recognition in vertebrates are functionally conserved in plant POT1 proteins. However, the plant proteins varied in their minimal DNA-binding sites and nucleotide recognition properties. Green alga POT1 exhibited a strong preference for the canonical plant telomere repeat sequence TTTAGGG with no detectable binding to hexanucleotide telomere repeat TTAGGG found in vertebrates and some plants, including Asparagus. In contrast, POT1 proteins from maize and Asparagus bound TTAGGG repeats with only slightly reduced affinity relative to the TTTAGGG sequence. We conclude that the nucleic acid binding site in plant POT1 proteins is evolving rapidly, and that the recent acquisition of TTAGGG telomere repeats in Asparagus appears to have co-evolved with changes in POT1 DNA sequence recognition.     

Carbonic anhydrases in plants and algae

Carbonic anhydrases catalyse the reversible hydration of CO₂, increasing the interconversion between CO₂ and HCO₃⁻ + H⁺ in living organisms. The three evolutionarily unrelated families of carbonic anhydrases are designated α-, β-and γ-CA. Animals have only the α-carbonic anhydrase type of carbonic anhydrase, but they contain multiple isoforms of this carbonic anhydrase. In contrast, higher plants, algae and cyanobacteria may contain members of all three CA families. Analysis of the Arabidopsis database reveals at least 14 genes potentially encoding carbonic anhydrases. The database also contains expressed sequence tags (ESTs) with homology to most of these genes. Clearly the number of carbonic anhydrases in plants is much greater than previously thought. Chlamydomonas, a unicellular green alga, is not far behind with five carbonic anhydrases already identified and another in the EST database. In algae, carbonic anhydrases have been found in the mitochondria, the chloroplast thylakoid, the cytoplasm and the periplasmic space. In C₃ dicots, only two carbonic anhydrases have been localized, one to the chloroplast stroma and one to the cytoplasm. A challenge for plant scientists is to identify the number, location and physiological roles of the carbonic anhydrases.     

Serpins in plants and green algae

Control of proteolysis is important for plant growth, development, responses to stress, and defence against insects and pathogens. Members of the serpin protein family are likely to play a critical role in this control through irreversible inhibition of endogenous and exogenous target proteinases. Serpins have been found in diverse species of the plant kingdom and represent a distinct clade among serpins in multicellular organisms. Serpins are also found in green algae, but the evolutionary relationship between these serpins and those of plants remains unknown. Plant serpins are potent inhibitors of mammalian serine proteinases of the chymotrypsin family in vitro but, intriguingly, plants and green algae lack endogenous members of this proteinase family, the most common targets for animal serpins. An Arabidopsis serpin with a conserved reactive centre is now known to be capable of inhibiting an endogenous cysteine proteinase. Here, knowledge of plant serpins in terms of sequence diversity, inhibitory specificity, gene expression and function is reviewed. This was advanced through a phylogenetic analysis of amino acid sequences of expressed plant serpins, delineation of plant serpin gene structures and prediction of inhibitory specificities based on identification of reactive centres. The review is intended to encourage elucidation of plant serpin functions.     

Blue-green algae (cyanobacteria): prospects and perspectives

Summary Photosynthetic, prokaryotic blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) occur in a wide range of natural habitats of diverse ionic composition and as such, represent an important source of biological material for biosolar energy conversion programs using saline water. The gasvacuolate, filamentous Spirulina is grown in seminatural culture in Lake Texcoco, Mexico, as a major source of single-cell protein for animal nutrition. Pilot-scale trials in other areas of the world have also demonstrated the suitability of blue-green algae, including Spirulina, for growth under brackish conditions. The carbohydrate accumulation profiles of blue-green algae differ in isolates from freshwater, marine and hypersaline habitats, with a trend towards sucrose or trehalose accumulation in stenohaline freshwater strains grown in media containing NaCl, while euryhaline and marine forms frequently accumulate glucosylglycerol. Many halotolerant isolates from hypersaline habitats accumulate glycinebetaine in response to osmotic stress. This knowledge may provide scope for future improvement in the N₂ fixation rates of blue-green algae in saline media, using betaine-accumulating N₂-fixing strains in preference to other, saltsensitive isolates.     

Stress in plants: physiological approach

The problem of stress in current plant physiology is examined. The review of different points of view on this problem is given.