The importance of plot size and the number of sampling seasons on capturing macrofungal species richness

The species-area relationship is an important factor in the study of species diversity, conservation biology, and landscape ecology. A deeper understanding of this relationship is necessary, in order to provide recommendations on how to improve the quality of data collection on macrofungal diversity in different land use systems in future studies, a systematic assessment of methodological parameters, in particular optimal plot sizes. The species-area relationship of macrofungi in tropical and temperate climatic zones and four different land use systems were investigated by determining the macrofungal species richness in plot sizes ranging from 100 m² to 10 000 m² over two sampling seasons. We found that the effect of plot size on recorded species richness significantly differed between land use systems with the exception of monoculture systems. For both climate zones, land use system needs to be considered when determining optimal plot size. Using an optimal plot size was more important than temporal replication (over two sampling seasons) in accurately recording species richness.     

Effects of productivity on species–area curves in herbaceous vegetation: evidence from experimental and observational data

The effects of productivity on the parameters of the species–area curve were investigated in this paper using two data sets on terrestrial plant communities: (1) one including 48 plots in 12 experimental sites on ploughed, formerly cultivated fields in the Siena region, Italy, and (2) one including 40 plots in hay meadows in the Bremen region, Germany. In both regions, species presence of vascular plants was recorded in nested plots ranging in size from 0.004 to 256 m² and 0.001 to 1000 m², respectively. Productivity was estimated as dry standing biomass. In the Siena data set, species richness showed a humped‐back relation to biomass in the plot sizes up to 1 m². For the larger plot sizes, no significant correlations were found. In the Bremen data set, positive relation between species number and biomass was observed at the smallest spatial scale (0.001 m²), whereas the relation disappeared or tended to be negative for the larger plot sizes. In general, the slopes z of the log species–log area curves (SAC) were negatively related to biomass in both data sets, while the intercept c increased with biomass in the Siena data set and was unrelated to biomass in the Bremen data set. The relationship between c and z was negative in the Siena data set and positive in the Bremen data set. The above results differed somewhat depending on which plot sizes were considered for the calculation of the SAC. Literature data confirmed that there are no clear patterns in the inter‐correlations between productivity, small scale and large scale species richness. Sites differing in productivity and in the slopes and intercepts of SAC may thus give rise to different species richness–productivity relationships. There can be one possible relation between species richness and biomass at one spatial scale (e.g. humped‐back) and another type of relation, even opposite, at another spatial scale. This suggests that the properties of species–area curves do not respond in a uniform way to the changes in productivity, but depend on the type of habitat or plant community and its particular properties. The parameter of the SAC can then hardly be used as scale‐independent parameter to investigate the effects of ecological factors, such as productivity, on species richness. The lack of clear patterns in the relations between small scale and large scale species richness implies that the predictions of the species‐pool hypothesis may fail when applied to plot sizes as dealt with in this study.     

Seasonal and Spatial Overlap between Cladocerans in Humic Lakes

Seasonal and vertical distribution, migratory patterns and reproductive effort in coexisting cladocerans were investigated in three humic lakes with different, but low phytoplankton abundances and varying fish predation pressure. Seasonal and vertical habitat or niche overlap varied, but were high within most pairs of species in all localities. Migration was conspicuous in presence of planktivorous fish, less so in the fish free lake. Despite algal densities below incipient limiting level (30–200 μg C I⁻¹) and a low ratio (3–10) of algal to cladoceran biomass, zooplankton distribution and reproductive parameters were not clearly related to algal biomass. Bacterial biomass equalled 10–50% of phytoplankton biomass, while detritus by far was the largest of the particulate compartements. It was concluded that with a possible exception of the early summer algal bloom, additional carbon sources (bacteria, detritus) are important to cladoceran nutrition in these humic lakes. A large share of N- and P-poor detritus in the diet would give zooplankton productivity limitation by food quality in terms of elemental composition rather than food quantity. This would permit coexistence even of species with rather high food overlap, but give low production rates for all species in agreement with the observations.     

Dominant plant species shift their nitrogen uptake patterns in response to nutrient enrichment caused by a fungal fairy in an alpine meadow

Niche partitioning by time, space and chemical forms has been suggested as an important mechanism to maintain species coexistence. Climate warming is assumed to increase soil nutrient availability through enhancing mineralization of soil organic matter in a variety of terrestrial ecosystems. However, few studies have yet examined how dominant plant species contribute to species coexistence when nutrient enrichment occurs in native ecosystems. We studied a single fairy ring (5 m diameter) in a Kobresia meadow in the Tibetan Plateau. This kind of rings is caused by a basidiomycete fungus Agaricus campestris, and is evidenced by dark-green vegetation boundaries. Nutrient enrichment occurs due to enhanced decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM) in the fungus growth zone of these rings. We conducted a short-term ¹⁵N labelling experiment and found that dominant plant species shifted their N uptake patterns and preferred N form (NO ₃ ^? , NH ₄ ⁺ , and amino acid N) in response to nutrient enrichment in an N-limited alpine meadow. The legume Gueldenstaedtia diversifolia had the lowest aboveground biomass among the five plant species studied at low available N level, although it mainly utilized ammonium (the most abundant N form). The two graminoids (Elymus nutans and Stipa aliena) demonstrated similar aboveground biomass at low and high available N levels, showing a similar pattern switching from NH ₄ ⁺ /NO ₃ ^? uptake outside the ring to glycine uptake in the annulus zone of the ring. The biomass of the forb Gentiana straminea differed significantly at low and high available N levels, but its N uptake pattern almost remained unchanged. Species therefore differed in their response to nutrient enrichment, most species showing chemical niche shifts instead of niche conservatism. This finding has important implications with regard to understanding the mechanisms responsible for species coexistence when natural nutrient enrichment is induced by climate warming in terrestrial ecosystems.     

Nitrate leaching as a function of plant community richness and composition,and the scaling of soil nutrients,in a restored temperate grassland

Two, two-factor experiments manipulated species and functional form plant richness and the spatial scaling of either nitrogen (N) or phosphorous (P) in restored tallgrass prairie in North Dakota, USA. Nitrate (NO₃ ⁻) leaching was measured in these plots and analyzed for its response to the treatment factors and measured plant community parameters. Nitrate extracted from anion exchange resin was regressed against the first principal component of species and functional form richness, the spatial scaling of N or P, the measured biomass of the functional forms used and the plot values for plant parameters based on weighted averages by species biomass. The treatments applied in the N and P experiments were 1, 2, 5, 10, or 20 plant species taxa, and the application of fertilizer in a random fractal pattern with either fine-scale or coarse-scale heterogeneity. Nitrate leaching decreased with plant diversity and increased by a factor of two going from fine-scale to coarse-scale N. It was also related to a number of plant functional parameters, and was positively correlated with the biomass of late successional C₃ grasses (Koeleria cristata (Lam.) Beauv., Poa pratensis L., Stipa comata Trin. & Rupr., and Stipa viridula Trin.), which are known from previous studies to have negative mycorrhizal responsiveness and are characterized by high root lateral spread per unit of root biomass. Our results show that while plant diversity has a highly significant influence on plant community uptake of NO₃ ⁻, this effect is mediated by the scaling of soil N and the functional traits of the species comprising the plant assemblage.     

Water availability,fundamental niches and realized niches: A case study from the Cape flora

The ability of plants to survive drought or waterlogging constitutes an important niche parameter, which might be particularly significant in explaining species coexistence in the species‐rich and seasonally dry Cape Floristic Region of South Africa. However, the degree of physiological adaptation and specialization to these eco‐hydrological parameters (the fundamental niche) cannot be readily inferred from correlative studies based on species distributions and spatial variation in environmental parameters (the realized niche). We used an ex situ greenhouse experiment to compare the fundamental hydrological niches (different mean annual precipitation, rainfall seasonality and soil drainage) of six eco‐hydrologically divergent African Restionaceae species. Juvenile plants were subjected to six different watering treatments, ranging from no watering to waterlogging, to determine drought and waterlogging susceptibility and optimal growth conditions. We used the rate of biomass accumulation and survival rate as response measures. We found that species from dry and mesic (but well‐drained) habitats had optimal or near‐optimal growth at benign conditions (under which most restio species grow well). All species performed worse when droughted and died when not watered. Species from dry habitats tended to perform better (assessed in growth) than species from wet habitats under droughting. Species from wet habitats performed best when waterlogged, whereas species from dry habitats performed very poorly when waterlogged – thus showing that realized and fundamental niches covaried at the wet end of the hydrological gradient. We conclude that eco‐hydrological parameters are part of the fundamental niche, and fundamental and realized species niches are approximately correlated along them. The distribution of wet habitat species appears not to reflect their drought tolerance, suggesting that it may not be predicted by bioclimatic variables, but rather by soil drainage characteristics.     

Cattle foraging habits shape vegetation patterns of alluvial year-round grazing systems

Year-round grazing with robust cattle is increasingly used as a near-natural tool for the restoration of structurally diverse grassland ecosystems in Western and Central Europe. The aim of this study was to evaluate the general success of year-round grazing and to analyze the interplay between emerging vegetation structures, grazing patterns and abiotic environmental conditions. In summer 2010 vegetation composition, aboveground biomass and soil properties were sampled at 44 quadrats of 4 × 4 m² within two year-round grazed floodplain sites in Northwestern Germany. For plot selection, we predefined structural vegetation types and later statistically determined indicative plant species for each structural type. Our results showed that year-round grazing resulted in the successful creation of eutrophic grassland communities on former agricultural land after 15 years. Soil parameters like phosphorous and potassium concentration and the flooding duration did not or only slightly differ between different structure types. In summer, cattle preferably fed at short-growing patches which were of better digestible biomass than taller patches. Hence, our data clearly demonstrate a positive feedback between grazing intensity and fodder quality leading to a patchy vegetation structure of intensively grazed swards and less frequented areas dominated by high-growing grasses and tall forbs, almost independently from primary differences in soil parameters and other site factors such as flooding duration. The remarkable structural and floristic diversity of year-round grazing systems clearly is a result of these spatially contrasting feeding patterns.     

Assessing evidence for a pervasive alteration in tropical tree communities

In Amazonian tropical forests, recent studies have reported increases in aboveground biomass and in primary productivity, as well as shifts in plant species composition favouring fast-growing species over slow-growing ones. This pervasive alteration of mature tropical forests was attributed to global environmental change, such as an increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentration, nutrient deposition, temperature, drought frequency, and/or irradiance. We used standardized, repeated measurements of over 2 million trees in ten large (16–52 ha each) forest plots on three continents to evaluate the generality of these findings across tropical forests. Aboveground biomass increased at seven of our ten plots, significantly so at four plots, and showed a large decrease at a single plot. Carbon accumulation pooled across sites was significant (+0.24 MgC ha⁻¹ y⁻¹, 95% confidence intervals [0.07, 0.39] MgC ha⁻¹ y⁻¹), but lower than reported previously for Amazonia. At three sites for which we had data for multiple census intervals, we found no concerted increase in biomass gain, in conflict with the increased productivity hypothesis. Over all ten plots, the fastest-growing quartile of species gained biomass (+0.33 [0.09, 0.55] % y⁻¹) compared with the tree community as a whole (+0.15 % y⁻¹); however, this significant trend was due to a single plot. Biomass of slow-growing species increased significantly when calculated over all plots (+0.21 [0.02, 0.37] % y⁻¹), and in half of our plots when calculated individually. Our results do not support the hypothesis that fast-growing species are consistently increasing in dominance in tropical tree communities. Instead, they suggest that our plots may be simultaneously recovering from past disturbances and affected by changes in resource availability. More long-term studies are necessary to clarify the contribution of global change to the functioning of tropical forests.     

Relationship between plant species richness and biomass in a coastal Maine Quercus-Pinus forest

Abstract. Several researchers have hypothesized that plant species richness has a unimodal relationship with biomass, while others have argued for a linear relationship. Data from various types of herbaceous communities show some support for the unimodal hypothesis, but this has not been tested extensively for forests and questions remain concerning its generality. We used linear and quadratic regression models to examine the relationship between overstory biomass and richness in a coastal Maine Quercus-Pinus forest across and within cover types using data from two plot sizes (2500-m² quadrats and 625-m² sub-quadrats). Understory data from 1-m² plots were also analysed. Richness was quadratically related to biomass at both plot sizes for all cover types combined, but the amount of variation explained by the models was very low (R²s < 0.09). Richness and biomass were not significantly related at either plot size for the mixed mesic cover type, the most common type in the forest. The best fit (R²= 0.43) was obtained with a quadratic model for the conifer cover type at the sub-quadrat level, with the quadratic model for the 1-m² data having the second highest R² (0.24). Across all six data sets, the quadratic model was the only one with a significant fit in two cases, and had considerably higher R²s (1.3–1.9 ×) in two others. The remaining two data sets could not be fit with a significant model of either type. For this forest, these results suggest little support for a linear relationship between plant species richness and biomass and variable, often weak, support for a unimodal relationship. Density, a potentially confounding variable in this type of analysis, was only weakly correlated with richness and was not found to alter the relationship between biomass and richness.     

High species richness in an Estonian wooded meadow

Abstract. A wooded meadow at Laelatu in western Estonia was found to be very rich in vascular plants. The maximum number of species found was 25 in a 10 cm x 10 cm plot, 42 in a 20 cm x 20 cm plot and 63 in a 1 m² plot. Species richness is related to the management history of the site. The highest richness was found in sites with the most regular long-term mowing. Species density was lower in the case of fertilization or temporary cessation of mowing. The richest community had an LAI of 2.8 and an above-ground dry biomass of 175 g/m². With increasing height of the herb layer the number of species decreases. Small disturbances cause a remarkable decrease in species density.     

长白山阔叶红松林样地(CBS)：群落组成与结构

 阔叶红松(Pinus koraiensis)林是中国东北地区的地带性植被,长白山区是阔叶红松林的核心分布区。参照巴拿马Barro Colorado Island (BCI) 50 hm² 热带雨林样地的技术规范,于2004年在长白山自然保护区的阔叶红松林内建立了一块25 hm²的固定样地（简称CBS）,这是目前中国科学院生物多样性委员会中国森林多样性动态研究网络中最北端的一块,也是全球温带地区最大的一块森林样地。2004年夏的第一次调查结果表明,样地内胸径≥1 cm的木本植物有52种,隶属于18科32属。总的独立个体数为38 902,包括分枝的总个体数为59 121。植物组成上属典型的长白山植物区系,同时混有一些亚热带和亚寒带成分。群落优势种明显,个体数最多的前3个种的个体数占到总个体数的60%,前14个种占到95%,而其余38个种只占到5 %。从物种多度、 胸高断面积、平均胸径和重要值来看,群落成层现象显著,具有比较明显的优势种。主要树种的径级结构近似于正态分布或双峰分布,而次林层和林下层树种则表现出倒 “J" 形或 “L"形。红松、紫椴(Tilia amurensis)、蒙古栎(Quercus mongolica)、 水曲柳(Fraxinus mandshurica)、色木槭(Acer mono)和春榆(Ulmus japonica )几个主要树种的空间分布随物种、径级的变化表现出不同的分布格局,其它一些树种的分布格局也表现出一定的空间异质性。     

The effect of plant succession on slope stability

The aim of this field investigation was to study the enrichment of biodiversity of the slope at an early phase of succession, initiated by selected pioneers, and to study how this enrichment related to enhancement of the slope stability. Four experimental plots, with differing plant pioneers and number of species (diversity), were designed in order to assess the effects of plant succession on slope stability. Plant growth pattern was assessed by observing the increment in species diversity (number), species frequency and plant biomass. Higher vegetation biomass in a mixed culture situation (LLSS) in the field with Leucaena leucocephala as a pioneer, marked an increase in species diversity after 24 months of observation. In contrast, G (grasses and legume creepers) plot revealed the slowest rate of succession and the lowest above-ground biomass amongst the plots. The mixed-culture plot without L. leucocephala (SS) had also shown a lower biomass, a similar phenomenon observed in a plot grown by L. leucocephala (LL) with low plant diversity. Consequently, these plant growth patterns gave a positive effect on slope stability where the regression study showed that the shear strength was much affected by plant biomass. Meanwhile, throughout the succession process in LLSS plot, root length density reached the highest value amongst the plots, 23 Km m^?3. In relation to this, the saturation level of the slope indicates the unsaturated condition of the soil which resulted in the enhancement of both soil penetrability and soil shear strength of the plot. These attributes reveal a strong positive relationship between the process of natural succession and the stability of slopes.     

Restoring for the present or restoring for the future: enhanced performance of two sympatric oaks (Quercus ilex and Quercus pyrenaica) above the current forest limit

Reforestation is common to restore degraded ecosystems, but tree‐species choice often neglects ongoing environmental changes. We evaluated the performance of planted seedlings of two oak species at two sites in a Mediterranean mountain (Sierra Nevada, SE Spain): one located within the current altitudinal forest range (1,600–1,760 m), and one above the upper forest limit (1,970–2,120 m). The forest service planted 1,350 seedlings of the deciduous Pyrenean oak and the evergreen Holm oak in a postfire successional shrubland. After 2 years, seedlings were monitored for survival, and a subset of 110 Pyrenean oaks and 185 Holm oaks were harvested for analyses of biomass and foliar nutrient status, δ¹³C, and δ¹⁸O. Both species showed the highest survival and leaf N status above the upper forest limit, and survival increased with altitude within each plot. The deciduous oak benefited most from planting at higher altitude, and it also had greater biomass at the higher site. Correlations between foliar N, δ¹⁸O, and δ¹³C across elevations indicate tighter stomatal control of water loss and greater water‐use efficiency with increasing plant N status at higher altitude, which may represent a so‐far overlooked positive feedback mechanism that could foster uphill range shifts in water‐limited mountain regions. Given ongoing trends and future projections of increasing temperature and aridity throughout the Mediterranean region, tree‐species selection for forest restoration should target forecasted climatic conditions rather than those prevailing in the past. This study highlights that ecosystem restoration provides an opportunity to assist species range shifts under rapidly changing climate.     

Assessing the above‐ground biomass of a complex tropical rainforest using a canopy crane

Abstract Current estimates of the total biomass in tropical rainforests vary considerably; this is due in large part to the different approaches that are used to calculate biomass. In this study we have used a canopy crane to measure the tree architectures in a 1 ha plot of complex mesophyll vine forest at Cape Tribulation, Australia. Methods were developed to measure and calculate the crown and stem biomass of six major species of tree and palm (Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae), Cleistanthus myrianthus (Euphorbiaceae), Endiandra microneura (Lauraceae), Myristica insipida (Myristicaceae), Acmena graveolens (Myrtaceae), Normanbya normanbyi (Arecaceae)) using the unique access provided by the crane. This has allowed the first non‐destructive biomass estimate to be carried out for a forest of this type. Allometric equations which relate tree biomass to the measured variable ‘diameter at breast height’ were developed for the six species, and a general equation was also developed for trees on the plot. The general equation was similar in form to equations developed for tropical rainforests in Brazil and New Guinea. The species equations were applied at the level of families, the generalized equation was applied to the remaining species which allowed the biomass of a total of 680 trees to be calculated. This has provided a current estimate of 270 t ha⁻¹ above‐ground biomass at the Australian Canopy Crane site; a value comparable to lowland rainforests in Panama and French Guiana. Using the same tree database seven alternative allometric equations (literature equations for tropical rainforests) were used to calculate the site biomass, the range was large (252–446 t ha⁻¹) with only three equations providing estimates within 34 t ha⁻¹ (12.5%) of the site value. Our use of multiple species‐specific allometric equations has provided a site estimate only slightly larger (1%) than that obtained using allometric equations developed specifically for tropical wet rainforests. We have demonstrated that it is possible to non‐destructively measure the biomass in a complex forest using an on‐site canopy crane. In conjunction the development of crown maps and a detailed tree architecture database allows changes in forest structure to be followed quantitatively.     

Plant species diversity and environmental heterogeneity: spatial scale and competing hypotheses

Questions: What is the observed relationship between plant species diversity and spatial environmental heterogeneity? Does the relationship scale predictably with sample plot size? What are the relative contributions to diversity patterns of variables linked to productivity or available energy compared to those corresponding to spatial heterogeneity? Methods: Observational and experimental studies that quantified relationships between plant species richness and within‐sample spatial environmental heterogeneity were reviewed. Effect size in experimental studies was quantified as the standardized mean difference between control (homogeneous) and heterogeneous treatments. For observational studies, effect sizes in individual studies were examined graphically across a gradient of plot size (focal scale). Relative contributions of variables representing spatial heterogeneity were compared to those representing available energy using a response ratio. Results: Forty‐one observational and 11 experimental studies quantified plant species diversity and spatial environmental heterogeneity. Observational studies reported positive species diversity‐spatial heterogeneity correlations at all points across a plot size gradient from ～1.0 × 10^?1 to ～1.0 × 10¹¹ m², although many studies reported spatial heterogeneity variables with no significant relationships to species diversity. The cross‐study effect size in experimental studies was not significantly different from zero. Available energy variables explained consistently more of the variance in species richness than spatial heterogeneity variables, especially at the smallest and largest plot sizes. Main conclusions: Species diversity was not related to spatial heterogeneity in a way predictable by plot size. Positive heterogeneity‐diversity relationships were common, confirming the importance of niche differentiation in species diversity patterns, but future studies examining a range of spatial scales in the same system are required to determine the role of dispersal and available energy in these patterns.     

More efficient estimation of plant biomass

Question: The optimal use of the point intercept method (PIM) for efficient estimation of plant biomass has not been addressed although PIM is a commonly used method in vegetation analysis. In this study we compare results achieved using PIM at a range of efforts, we assess a method for calculating these results that are new with PIM and we provide a formula for planning the optimal use of PIM. Location: Northern Norway. Methods: We collected intercept data at a range of efforts, i.e. from one to 100 pins per 0.25 m² plots, on three plant growth forms in a mountain meadow. After collection of intercept data we clipped and weighed the plant biomass. The relationship between intercept frequency and weighed biomass (b) was estimated using both a weighted linear regression model (WLR) and an ordinary linear regression model (OLR). The accuracy of the estimate of biomass achieved by PIM at different efforts was assessed by running computer simulations at different pin densities. Results: The relationship between intercept frequency and weighed biomass (b) was far better estimated using WLR compared to the normally used OLR. Efforts above 10 pins per 0.25 m² plot had a negligible effect on the accuracy of the estimate of biomass achieved by PIM whereas the number of plots had a strong effect. Moreover, for a given level of accuracy, the required number of plots varied depending on plant growth form. We achieved similar results to that of the computer simulations when applying our WLR based formula. Conclusion: This study shows that PIM can be applied more efficiently than was done in previous studies for the purpose of plant biomass estimation, where several plots should be analysed but at considerably less effort per plot. Moreover, WLR rather than OLR should be applied when estimating biomass from intercept frequency. The formula we have deduced is a useful tool for planning plant biomass analysis with PIM.     

In and out: Effects of shoot- vs. rooted-presence sampling methods on plant diversity measures in mountain grasslands

Plant diversity measures (e.g., alpha- and beta-diversity) provide the basis for a number of ecological indication and monitoring methods. These measures are based on species counts in sampling units (plots or quadrats). However, there are two alternative conventions for defining a vascular plant species as “present” in a plot, i.e. “shoot presence” (a species is recorded if the vertical projection of any above-ground part falls within the plot) and “rooted presence” (a species is recorded only when an individual is rooted inside the plot). Very few studies addressed the effects of the two sampling conventions on species richness and diversity indices. We sampled mountain dry grasslands in Italy across different plot sizes and vegetation types to assess how large is the difference in alpha- and beta-diversity values and in sample-based rarefaction curves between the two methods. We found that the difference is greatly dependent on plot size, being more relevant, both in absolute and percentage values, at smaller grain; it is also dependent on habitat type, being larger in shallow-soil communities, as they have a sparser vegetation structure and host life-form types with a larger lateral spread. At fine spatial scales (<1 m²) the difference is large enough to bias statistical inference, and we conclude that at such scales one should not attempt to compare plant diversity indices if they were not obtained with the same sampling convention.     

西双版纳热带季节雨林土壤养分空间异质性对乔木树种多样性的影响

生态位理论认为,养分空间异质性分布会减少种间竞争排斥而有助于物种共存;而中性理论则认为群落树种呈独立于环境特征的随机分布。为研究土壤养分异质性与乔木树种多样性的联系,在西双版纳热带季节雨林随机设置了16个1 hm~2样方,调查了各样方乔木树种多样性,计算了各样方土壤有效氮(AN)、有效磷(EP)、有效钾(EK)、有机质(OM)、p H、总氮(TN)、总磷(TP)、总钾(TK)的变异系数以代表各样方土壤养分空间异质性分布的相对水平。Pearson相关分析表明,TK变异系数与乔木树种丰富度、Shannon-wiener指数呈显著正相关(P0.05),表明该区域不同植物可能在钾资源的利用上存在明显的生态位分化,钾的异质性有助于树种共存;OM、AN变异系数与Pielou均匀度指数呈明显正相关(P0.1),在一定程度上说明了这些养分的空间异质性缓解了种间竞争压力,树种多度分布相对均匀,有助于树种共存。除TK外,其它土壤指标的变异系数与乔木树种多样性的正相关性均不显著(P0.05),表明这些养分的空间异质性分布对乔木树种多样性的影响相对较小,中性或其它生态学过程可能掩盖了这些养分的空间异质性分布对乔木树种多样性的影响。这说明,土壤养分空间异质性可能在一定程度上促进了树种共存,但同时应当重视中性过程等在西双版纳热带雨林群落构建中的作用。     

Effects of long-term grazing on the morphological and functional traits of Leymus chinensis in the semiarid grassland of Inner Mongolia, China

Livestock grazing represents a major human disturbance to grasslands throughout the world. We evaluated the effects of long-term grazing (>20 years) on a dominant perennial grass species, Leymus chinensis (Trin.) Tzvel., in the semiarid grassland of Inner Mongolia, China, in terms of its morphological and functional responses. L. chinensis, one of the most abundant species in semiarid grassland, had significantly smaller leaf area, fewer vegetative tillers and shorter shoot internodes length, but significantly greater specific leaf area for the individuals in the grazing plot than those in the exclosure (grazing-free) plot. Long-term grazing also altered the relative distribution of biomass to leaves, roots and rhizomes. The biomass, coverage and the number of species were lower in the grazing plot by 50–70% in comparison with those in the grazing-free plot. In addition, the long-term grazing substantively decreased the physiological capacities of this grass species, including significantly lower net photosynthetic rate, apparent quantum efficiency, photochemical efficiency of PSII and water use efficiency. Significantly higher stable oxygen isotope ratios (δ ¹⁸O) of the soil water in the grazing plot than those in the grazing-free plot indicated a much higher soil evaporation in the grazing plot because of less litter coverage. Seasonal patterns in the δ ¹⁸O values of the stem water of L. chinensis and three other common species in the grazing and grazing-free plots indicated that plants in the grazing and grazing-free plots might shift their water sources differently from a dry month (June) to a wet month (August). This study illustrated the importance of using different approaches to study the possible responses of grass species in arid regions to human disturbances, such as long-term grazing.     

Topographic Variation in Aboveground Biomass in a Subtropical Evergreen Broad-Leaved Forest in China

The subtropical forest biome occupies about 25% of China, with species diversity only next to tropical forests. Despite the recognized importance of subtropical forest in regional carbon storage and cycling, uncertainties remain regarding the carbon storage of subtropical forests, and few studies have quantified within-site variation of biomass, making it difficult to evaluate the role of these forests in the global and regional carbon cycles. Using data for a 24-ha census plot in east China, we quantify aboveground biomass, characterize its spatial variation among different habitats, and analyse species relative contribution to the total aboveground biomass of different habitats. The average aboveground biomass was 223.0 Mg ha⁻¹ (bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals [217.6, 228.5]) and varied substantially among four topographically defined habitats, from 180.6 Mg ha⁻¹ (bootstrapped 95% CI [167.1, 195.0]) in the upper ridge to 245.9 Mg ha⁻¹ (bootstrapped 95% CI [238.3, 253.8]) in the lower ridge, with upper and lower valley intermediate. In consistent with our expectation, individual species contributed differently to the total aboveground biomass of different habitats, reflecting significant species habitat associations. Different species show differently in habitat preference in terms of biomass contribution. These patterns may be the consequences of ecological strategies difference among different species. Results from this study enhance our ability to evaluate the role of subtropical forests in the regional carbon cycle and provide valuable information to guide the protection and management of subtropical broad-leaved forest for carbon sequestration and carbon storage.