A paper park—as seen from the air

Satellite imagery can be used to assess the state of vegetation in areas that are rarely visited. Here we report how satellite imagery clearly shows the outline of Mucheve Forest Reserve in Mozambique because the vegetation within the park has been severely degraded. This is contrast to several other protected areas, where the vegetation outside their boundaries is often more degraded than within. Possible reasons for the difference between the vegetation structure inside and outside the reserve are shortly discussed.     

利用GIS和RS确定长白山自然保护区森林景观分布的环境范围

在对遥感数据进行景观分类和对环境因子进行空间表达基础上,在地理信息系统的支持下,确定长白山自然保护区森林景观分布的环境(包括年均温、年降水量、坡度和坡向)范围．结果表明。从苔原、岳桦、云冷杉到阔叶红松林,最适海拔高度范围依次为1780-2212、1705-1956、1042-1625、823-1184m;最适温度范围分别为-4．75～-2．40℃、-3．42～-2．07℃、-1．49-1．39℃、0．71-2．37℃;最适降水范围分别为1034～1110、1014-1060、883-1017、824-925mm;长白山自然保护区的森林景观主要分布在平、缓坡地上,并与坡向关系密切。苔原在各个坡向上均有分布。且在各个坡向上分布面积的变化不大;岳样、云冷杉林、阔叶红松林、山杨白样林主要呈现北、西北向分布,其次为东北、西向分布;落叶松林主要为东北向分布。其次为东和北向分布;疏林主要为西向分布,其次为西南、西北和南向分布;风倒区主要为西、西南、西北向分布。     

云南西双版纳地区森林转型特征(英文)

森林转型是指森林覆盖率由净减少到净增加的过程。中国森林早在20世纪80年代就进入了转型期,然而,中国热带地区的总森林覆盖率虽呈增长趋势,但依旧存在着天然林大量被毁的现象。鉴于天然林对森林生态系统功能的重要作用,本研究通过加入森林类型分类的内容,以西双版纳为例探讨其森林转型的真实特征。结果表明:森林转型理论单纯以\"总森林\"覆盖率为研究对象,忽视了其他森林类型的动态变化,甚至掩盖了\"天然林\"的真实动态变化。西双版纳的森林转型主要是人工种植林的扩张所致,只是树木数量统计上的转型。事实上,自1988年以来,西双版纳的天然林一直在锐减。所以建议未来关于森林转型的研究应将\"森林\"区分成不同的森林类型加以研究。     

云南西双版纳地区森林转型特征?

森林转型是指森林覆盖率由净减少到净增加的过程。中国森林早在20世纪80年代就进入了转型期,然而,中国热带地区的总森林覆盖率虽呈增长趋势,但依旧存在着天然林大量被毁的现象。鉴于天然林对森林生态系统功能的重要作用,本研究通过加入森林类型分类的内容,以西双版纳为例探讨其森林转型的真实特征。结果表明：森林转型理论单纯以“总森林”覆盖率为研究对象,忽视了其他森林类型的动态变化,甚至掩盖了“天然林”的真实动态变化。西双版纳的森林转型主要是人工种植林的扩张所致,只是树木数量统计上的转型。事实上,自1988年以来,西双版纳的天然林一直在锐减。所以建议未来关于森林转型的研究应将“森林”区分成不同的森林类型加以研究。     

Fractal properties of forest spatial structure

The definition of fractal dimension of natural objects, which enables to deal with scale dependence of fractal dimension is discussed. Abrupt changes of fractal dimension of spatial structure of terrestrial ecosystems are considered in the context of hierarchical paradigm. On this ground the procedure is proposed for segmentation of a territory, which takes into account the scale dependence of spatial variability of ecological parameters. Using remotely sensed data — normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and thermal radiation in the infrared band — fractal dimensions and critical scales are evaluated for different forest types with the help of software, developed for this purpose. The results obtained corroborate the potentialities of fractal approach in ecology. These methods and results can be used for discrimination of remotely sensed data; but further investigations, including detailed comparison of fractal characteristics of remotely sensed forest images with results of on-site field studies are necessary to validate them.     

Spatial and temporal deforestation dynamics in protected and unprotected dry forests: a case study from Myanmar (Burma)

Tropical dry forests are more threatened, less protected and especially susceptible to deforestation. However, most deforestation research focuses on tropical rain forests. We analyzed spatial and temporal changes in land cover from 1972 through 2005 at Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary (CWS), a tropical dry forest in Myanmar (Burma). CWS is one of the largest protected patches of tropical dry forest in Southeast Asia and supports over half the remaining wild population of the endangered Eld’s deer. Between 1973 and 2005, 62% of forest was lost at an annual rate of 1.86% in the area, while forest loss inside CWS was only 16% (0.45% annually). Based on trends found during our study period, dry forests outside CWS would not persist beyond 2019, while forests inside CWS would persist for at least another 100 years. Analysis of temporal deforestation patterns indicates the highest rate of loss occurred between 1992 and 2001. Conversion to agriculture, shifting agriculture, and flooding from a hydro-electric development were the main deforestation drivers. Fragmentation was also severe, halving the area of suitable Eld’s deer habitat between 1973 and 2001, and increasing its isolation. CWS protection efforts were effective in reducing deforestation rates, although deforestation effects extended up to 2 km into the sanctuary. Establishing new protected areas for dry forests and finding ways to mitigate human impacts on existing forests are both needed to protect remaining dry forests and the species they support.     

The Local Perception of Tropical Deforestation and its Relation to Conservation Policies in Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve,Mexico

We examine the ways both deforestation and conservation are viewed by people of two villages with different ethnic composition located within the biosphere reserve of Los Tuxtlas, Mexico. The rain forest is considered to be important, since it provides many resources and environmental benefits. Residents do notice forest degradation, although deforestation is not one of their major concerns. In the mestizo village, 65% of interviewees indicated they felt responsible for deforestation, while only 30% of indigenous villagers felt the same. In both communities, nearly half the respondents see themselves as powerless to take actions to preserve the forest. We analyzed the management plan for the reserve in light of our results, and found authorities’ perceptions differ from that of local communities. This study emphasizes the lack of factual data and common goals for biodiversity conservation. Our work points to the urgency to build conservation efforts that involve the different social actors, who diverge in interests and views, particularly in countries like Mexico, where rich biodiversity regions are also broadly inhabited.     

不同龄组的热带森林植被生物量与遥感地学数据之间的相关性分析

 在森林植被生物量遥感动态监测方面最基础性的研究是探讨生物量与遥感数据及其派生数据、地形数据和气象数据之间的相关性。为此,以我国云南省西双版纳的热带森林植被为例,分别对幼龄林、中龄林、近熟林和成过熟林的生物量与其对应的LANDSAT TM数据及其派生数据、气象数据和地形数据之间的相关性进行了分析。首先,利用森林资源连续清查的林业固定样地数据,通过各树种组的各器官生物量估算模型计算出各样地森林植被的生物量,并根据样地的坐标来建立样地GIS数据库。然后,利用地形图对遥感图像进行几何校正,并对遥感图像进行主成分变换、缨帽变换以及植被指数的计算来产生其派生数据。其次,将栅格样地数据、遥感数据（如LANDSAT TM数据）及其派生数据（如各种植被指数数据、主成分数据、缨帽变换的亮度、绿度和湿度数据）、栅格地形数据（如DEM和坡向）和栅格气象数据（包括年平均温度、大于0 ℃的积温、年平均降雨量和湿润度）统一到同一坐标系和投影下,并将所有的数据内插为30 m分辨率的格网数据,利用样地数据与遥感数据及其派生数据、地形数据和气象数据进行栅格空间叠加分析,从而得到各样地的样地数据、遥感数据及其派生数据、地形数据和气象数据。再次,根据各样地优势树种所属的龄组将所有的数据层化为幼龄林、中龄林、近熟林和成过熟林等几个不同龄组的样本数据。最后,分别对幼龄林、中龄林、近熟林和成过熟林的样地生物量与其对应的遥感数据和派生数据、气象数据和地形数据进行相关性分析。研究表明,在所有的因子中,幼龄林的生物量与LANDSAT 的TM1和TM6波段的亮度值在0.05的水平上呈显著相关,其相关系数均为-0.33;中龄林的生物量与降雨量在0.05的水平上呈显著相关,其相关系数为0.33;近熟林的生物量与LANDSAT TM的派生数据VI3、LANDSAT的TM4和缨帽变换的亮度值在0.05的水平上呈显著相关,其相关系数分别为0.50、-0.45和-0.45;成过熟林的生物量与主成分变换的第二主成分（PC2）在0.05的水平上呈显著相关,其相关系数为-0.46。在0.05的水平上,近熟林的生物量与LANDSAT TM的派生数据VI3的相关系数最高,达到0.50,其次是成过熟林的生物量与主成分变换的第二主成分的相关系数,为-0.46。     

A method for assessing evergreen habitats using phytodiversity and geospatial techniques in tropical rain forests of Southern Western Ghats (India)

We have used data generated using remote sensing and geographical information systems to categorize habitats, and then determined the relationship between the habitat categorizations and species-distribution patterns. A biologically rich hotspot—Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, located at Southern Western Ghats, India, was chosen for this study. In order to spatially delineate areas of high species richness/diversity and endemic habitat zones, we have identified evergreen habitats in conjunction with landscape metrics, species assemblage, micro-habitats like slope, topography, species endemism, and proportion of core and edge species. A total of 236 species and 2,920 individuals were recorded using systematic stratified plots of 0.1 ha covering 47 plots. Hierarchical cluster analysis was done using Ward’s method. Plot information was used to identify clusters based on species density. The analysis showed five species assemblages that are quite distinct from each other in terms of dominant species. The distribution of endemic and edge species, land cover heterogeneity, and continuity of patches in these clusters were evaluated to understand the degree of disturbance and intactness at landscape scale. Integration of species assemblages and topography brought out four major elevation-slope complexes. Information on species composition (robust field survey) with spectral (hybrid classification) properties has shown 72% overall accuracy and distinguished four evergreen sub-groups and other land cover classes. The developed approach assumes great importance in the assessment of biodiversity and prioritizing the areas of conservation.     

Prescribed moorland burning meets good practice guidelines: A monitoring case study using aerial photography in the Peak District,UK

Upland moors in the UK have been managed for centuries using rotational prescribed-burning, but in recent years there has been contentious debate over its continuing use due to varying effects on moorland ecosystem services. Prescribed-burning should only be carried out using good-practice codes, which include restrictions on the size, location and frequency of burns. Good burning practice is an indicator of management standards and habitat condition in moorland landscapes. However, there has been little attempt to assess management performance with respect to these restrictions. We investigated prescribed-burning on a case-study estate (Howden Moor) in the Peak District National Park from 1988 to 2009 using management maps and aerial photography. The annual area burned (0.9%) was far below recommendations (10%) and patches were in keeping with the target sizes specified (mean ± se: 2370 ± 70 m²). The risk of a large or escaped fire was very low, with less than 1% of fires greater than 15,000 m². However, only 28.9% of the total burnable area was burned, leaving the rest unmanaged and accumulating fuel. Future guidelines might recommend the application of prescribed-burning across the range of Calluna vulgaris growth phases, to reduce fuel load and promote biodiversity at the landscape scale. We show that vegetation mapping and aerial photography are an effective method for monitoring prescribed-burning practice on moorlands. The information derived from such monitoring studies should lead to greater confidence in the standard of prescribed-burning and adherence to good-practice guidelines and requirements imposed by statutory authorities.     

Comparison of Bird Communities in Primary vs. Young Secondary Tropical Montane Cloud Forest in Guatemala

Cloud forests in central Guatemala are fragmented and decreasing in area due to slash-and-burn agricultural activities. We studied bird species composition, abundance, guild composition, and site tenacity of a 102 ha plot located in a cloud forest region of the Sierra Yalijux in Guatemala, half of which was primary forest and half young secondary forest (<7-years-old). Of the 100 species present 14 were restricted to the Endemic Bird Area ‘Northern Central American highlands’ (i.e. 66% of a total of 21 endemics). Five of the 100 analysed species, including one of the restricted-range species (Troglodytes rufociliatus), had a significantly different abundance in primary and secondary forests. Theoretical analysis suggests that seven species out of a community comprised of 141 bird species are already extirpated and only three out of the 14 present restricted-range species might survive the current state of deforestation. Insectivores were the dominant guild on the plot in terms of numbers of species, followed by omnivores, frugivores and granivores. However, in terms of individuals, omnivores made up nearly half of the bird individuals in primary forest, but declined by 44% in secondary forest, whereas granivores more than doubled in this habitat type. Numbers of species per guild were not significantly different between habitats, while numbers of individuals per guild were significantly different. In general, individuals per species are significantly different in the two habitats. Results suggest that most of the species that are currently surviving in the remnant forests of the Sierra Yalijux might be fairly well adapted to a range of forest conditions, but that populations of a number of restricted-range species might be small. Even generalists species like the Common Bush Tanager (Chlorospingus ophthalmicus) are less abundant in secondary vegetation than in primary forest of the study plot.     

Mapping and predicting deforestation patterns in the lowlands of Sumatra

Protected area managers have limited resources and so need fine-scale information to decide where to focus their budgets for law enforcement and community outreach. This study used satellite imagery to map and analyse forest loss in an area that overlaps with Kerinci Seblat National Park, Sumatra, to identify areas most susceptible to illegal logging. Between 1985 and 1992, forest located at lower elevation and close to roads was most vulnerable to clearance. These factors were also significant between 1992 and 1999, along with distance to newly created logging roads. The presence of these roads probably explained why the deforestation rate increased from 1.1% per year to 3.0% per year over the two study periods. The accuracy of the 1985–1992 model was measured in the field and successfully predicted subsequent deforestation patterns, suggesting that this methodology could be used to identify where future patrolling effort and community outreach programmes should be focussed. In addition, this approach could be used more widely in conservation planning to prioritise the protection of vulnerable sites.     

Diversity and distribution of murid rodent populations between forest and derived savanna sites within south western Nigeria

Southward encroachment of the derived savanna zone with its attendant denudation of the rainforest in Nigeria adversely affects the diversity and distribution of mammals, particularly murid rodents. This study was carried out to establish the identities of murid rodent populations and to compare their diversity between forest and derived savanna sites within south western Nigeria. Identification of captured specimens was carried out by multivariate statistics of body and skull measurements, and also by analysis of certain discrete characters. Six species were identified: Praomys tullbergi, Hylomyscus stella, Mastomys natalensis, Arvicanthis rufinus, Lemniscomys striatus and Lophuromys sikapusi. Forest sites possessed a higher Shannon’s diversity index (1.685) than the derived savanna sites (0.978), containing a higher number of taxa and larger abundance of murid rodents. This underscores the negative impact that encroachment of the derived savanna has upon diversity of animals in areas that were once forest.