Managing Semi-Arid Rangelands for Carbon Storage: Grazing and Woody Encroachment Effects on Soil Carbon and Nitrogen

High grazing intensity and wide-spread woody encroachment may strongly alter soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) pools. However, the direction and quantity of these changes have rarely been quantified in East African savanna ecosystem. As shifts in soil C and N pools might further potentially influence climate change mitigation, we quantified and compared soil organic carbon (SOC) and total soil nitrogen (TSN) content in enclosures and communal grazing lands across varying woody cover i.e. woody encroachment levels. Estimated mean SOC and TSN stocks at 0–40 cm depth varied across grazing regimes and among woody encroachment levels. The open grazing land at the heavily encroached site on sandy loam soil contained the least SOC (30 ± 2.1 Mg ha^-1) and TSN (5 ± 0.57 Mg ha^-1) while the enclosure at the least encroached site on sandy clay soil had the greatest mean SOC (81.0 ± 10.6 Mg ha^-1) and TSN (9.2 ± 1.48 Mg ha^-1). Soil OC and TSN did not differ with grazing exclusion at heavily encroached sites, but were twice as high inside enclosure compared to open grazing soils at low encroached sites. Mean SOC and TSN in soils of 0–20 cm depth were up to 120% higher than that of the 21–40 cm soil layer. Soil OC was positively related to TSN, cation exchange capacity (CEC), but negatively related to sand content. Our results show that soil OC and TSN stocks are affected by grazing, but the magnitude is largely influenced by woody encroachment and soil texture. We suggest that improving the herbaceous layer cover through a reduction in grazing and woody encroachment restriction are the key strategies for reducing SOC and TSN losses and, hence, for climate change mitigation in semi-arid rangelands.     

Enhancement of Carbon Sequestration in Soil in the Temperature Grasslands of Northern China by Addition of Nitrogen and Phosphorus

Increased nitrogen (N) deposition is common worldwide. Questions of where, how, and if reactive N-input influences soil carbon (C) sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems are of great concern. To explore the potential for soil C sequestration in steppe region under N and phosphorus (P) addition, we conducted a field experiment between 2006 and 2012 in the temperate grasslands of northern China. The experiment examined 6 levels of N (0–56 g N m^-2 yr^-1), 6 levels of P (0–12.4 g P m^-2 yr^-1), and a control scenario. Our results showed that addition of both N and P enhanced soil total C storage in grasslands due to significant increases of C input from litter and roots. Compared with control plots, soil organic carbon (SOC) in the 0–100 cm soil layer varied quadratically, from 156.8 to 1352.9 g C m^-2 with N addition gradient (R² = 0.99, P < 0.001); and logarithmically, from 293.6 to 788.6 g C m^-2 with P addition gradient (R² = 0.56, P = 0.087). Soil inorganic carbon (SIC) decreased quadratically with N addition. The net C sequestration on grassland (including plant, roots, SIC, and SOC) increased linearly from -128.6 to 729.0 g C m^-2 under N addition (R² = 0.72, P = 0.023); and increased logarithmically, from 248.5 to 698 g C m^-2under P addition (R² = 0.82, P = 0.014). Our study implies that N addition has complex effects on soil carbon dynamics, and future studies of soil C sequestration on grasslands should include evaluations of both SOC and SIC under various scenarios.     

Alfalfa Carbon and Nitrogen Sequestration Patterns and Effects of Temperature and Precipitation in Three Agro-Pastoral Ecotones of Northern China

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is a primary and widely cultivated forage crop in China. As a perennial leguminous grass, continuous planted alfalfa may influence carbon and nitrogen sequestration in soils. We evaluated the effect of alfalfa, planted for different lengths of time, and temperature and precipitation on soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) contents, and estimated soil SOC and TN inventories from 0–60 cm in three agro-pastoral ecotones of northern China. Alfalfa SOC and TN storage patterns were significantly different with increasing soil depths between the three regions of northern China. Continuous alfalfa grassland planted had a positive effect on accumulation of both SOC and TN in the Northwest region, whereas SOC storage peaked 6–7 years after planting in the Northeast and North region. Moreover, relatively higher TN storage appeared 7 years after planting in the Northeast and North regions. This study controlled as many factors as possible, but we caution that such temporal inferences could be artifacts of site selection. The regression analysis indicated that SOC and TN accumulation was mainly dependent on temperature (≥10°C of effective total accumulated temperature) in the North region. Precipitation in the growing season was the main limiting factor for SOC storage in the Northwest region and TN accumulation in the North regions. Therefore, the different climate factors affecting SOC and TN sequestration in alfalfa occurred at a regional scale.     

Long-term Nutrient Fertilization Increased Soil Carbon Storage in California Grasslands

Ecosystems - Elevated nutrient deposition often increases primary productivity in terrestrial ecosystems and thus has the potential to increase the flux of carbon (C) into soils. An important step...     

Changes of AM Fungal Abundance along Environmental Gradients in the Arid and Semi-Arid Grasslands of Northern China

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are ubiquitous symbionts of higher plants in terrestrial ecosystems, while the occurrence of the AM symbiosis is influenced by a complex set of abiotic and biotic factors. To reveal the regional distribution pattern of AM fungi as driven by multiple environmental factors, and to understand the ecological importance of AM fungi in natural ecosystems, we conducted a field investigation on AM fungal abundance along environmental gradients in the arid and semi-arid grasslands of northern China. In addition to plant parameters recorded in situ, soil samples were collected, and soil chemo-physical and biological parameters were measured in the lab. Statistical analyses were performed to reveal the relative contribution of climatic, edaphic and vegetation factors to AM fungal abundance, especially for extraradical hyphal length density (HLD) in the soil. The results indicated that HLD were positively correlated with mean annual temperature (MAT), soil clay content and soil pH, but negatively correlated with both soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil available N. The multiple regressions and structural equation model showed that MAT was the key positive contributor and soil fertility was the key negative contributor to HLD. Furthermore, both the intraradical AM colonization (IMC) and relative abundance of AM fungi, which was quantified by real-time PCR assay, tended to decrease along the increasing SOC content. With regard to the obvious negative correlation between MAT and SOC in the research area, the positive correlation between MAT and HLD implied that AM fungi could potentially mitigate soil carbon losses especially in infertile soils under global warming. However, direct evidence from long-term experiments is still expected to support the AM fungal contribution to soil carbon pools.     

Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Storage in Upper Montane Riparian Meadows

Though typically limited in aerial extent, soils of high-elevation riparian wetlands have among the highest density of soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) of terrestrial ecosystems and therefore contribute disproportionally to ecosystem services such as water retention, forage production, wildlife habitat, and reactive N removal. Because much soil C and N is stored in labile forms in anaerobic conditions, management activities or environmental changes that lead to drying cause mineralization of labile soil organic matter, and loss of C and N. Meadows are focal points of human activities in mountain regions, often with incised stream channels from historically heavy grazing exacerbated by extreme runoff events. To quantify soil C and N stores in montane riparian meadows across hydrologic conditions, 17 meadows between 1950- and 2675-m elevation were selected in the central Sierra Nevada Range, California, that were classified using the proper functioning condition (PFC) system. Results indicate that C and N density in whole-solum soil cores were equivalent at forest edge positions of properly functioning, functioning at-risk, and nonfunctioning condition. Soils under more moist meadow positions in properly functioning meadows have at least twice the C, N, dissolved organic C, and dissolved organic N (DON) than those under nonfunctioning meadows. Densities of total N and DON, but not C, of functioning at-risk meadows are significantly lower (P < 0.05) than those of properly functioning meadows at mid-slope and stream-bank positions, suggesting accelerated loss of N early in degradation processes. Though variable, the soil attributes measured correspond well to the PFC riparian wetland classification system.     

The Response of Soil Nematode Community to Nitrogen, Water, and Grazing History in the Inner Mongolian Steppe, China

Nutrient nitrogen and water availability are co-limiting factors for grassland productivity in the Inner Mongolian steppe. The objective of this study was to evaluate the interactive effects of water and nitrogen (N) addition on soil abiotic factors and soil nematode community composition. A 3-year experiment with addition of water (with and without irrigation simulating wet year precipitation) and nitrogen (0, 25, and 50?kg?N?ha^?1) was conducted at two sites in Inner Mongolia with histories of heavy grazing (HG) and moderate grazing (MG). The results showed that HG had several lower nematode ecological indicators; namely, the Simpson index (P?<?0.01), maturity index (MI, including free-living nematodes), and plant parasite index (PPI, including plant-parasitic nematodes). In addition, HG had a lower proportion of omnivores–predators and higher proportion of bacterivores (P?<?0.01), with reduced soil moisture, total nitrogen and total carbon (C), and increased C/N ratio. A relatively low addition of N did not influence soil total carbon and total nitrogen and had only a slight effect on the composition and structure of the soil nematode community. Water addition increased the proportion of plant parasites, reduced the proportion of bacterivores and omnivores–predators and increased the soil total carbon and total nitrogen. Redundancy analysis revealed that grazing history alone explained more variation in nematode taxon composition (17.4%, P?<?0.01) and PPI (35.6%, P?<?0.01) and MI (17.5%, P?<?0.01) and Simpson index (10.5%, P?<?0.01). Water addition explained more variation in the nematode feeding group (24.4%, P?<?0.01), total nematodes (7.9%, P?<?0.01) and PPI (78.7%, P?<?0.01). Nitrogen addition explained variation in the nematode taxon composition (6.2%, P?<?0.01). These results suggested that HG caused soil degradation, and water addition facilitated plant parasites and enhanced soil properties, whereas application of small amounts of nitrogen to N-limited semiarid grasslands did not induce clear changes in this system in the short term.     

Spatio-Temporal Variation in Vegetation Biomass and Its Relationships with Climate Factors in the Xilingol Grasslands,Northern China

Knowledge about grassland biomass and its dynamics is critical for studying regional carbon cycles and for the sustainable use of grassland resources. In this study, we investigated the spatio-temporal variation of biomass in the Xilingol grasslands of northern China. Field-based biomass samples and MODIS time series data sets were used to establish two empirical models based on the relationship of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) with above-ground biomass (AGB) as well as that of AGB with below-ground biomass (BGB). We further explored the climatic controls of these variations. Our results showed that the biomass averaged 99.01 Tg (1 Tg=10¹² g) over a total area of 19.6×10⁴ km² and fluctuated with no significant trend from 2001 to 2012. The mean biomass density was 505.4 g/m², with 62.6 g/m² in AGB and 442.8 g/m² in BGB, which generally decreased from northeast to southwest and exhibited a large spatial heterogeneity. The year-to-year AGB pattern was generally consistent with the inter-annual variation in the growing season precipitation (GSP), showing a robust positive correlation (R²=0.82, P<0.001), but an opposite coupled pattern was observed with the growing season temperature (GST) (R²=0.61, P=0.003). Climatic factors also affected the spatial distribution of AGB, which increased progressively with the GSP gradient (R²=0.76, P<0.0001) but decreased with an increasing GST (R²=0.70, P<0.0001). An improved moisture index that combined the effects of GST and GSP explained more variation in AGB than did precipitation alone (R²=0.81, P<0.0001). The relationship between AGB and GSP could be fit by a power function. This increasing slope of the GSP–AGB relationships along the GSP gradient may be partly explained by the GST–GSP spatial pattern in Xilingol. Our findings suggest that the relationships between climatic factors and AGB may be scale-dependent and that multi-scale studies and sufficient long-term field data are needed to examine the relationships between AGB and climatic factors.     

Stratification and Storage of Soil Organic Carbon and Nitrogen as Affected by Tillage Practices in the North China Plain

Tillage practices can redistribute the soil profiles, and thus affects soil organic carbon (SOC), and its storage. The stratification ratio (SR) can be an indicator of soil quality. This study was conducted to determine tillage effects on the profile distribution of certain soil properties in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and summer maize (Zea mays L.) systems in the North China Plain (NCP). Three tillage treatments, including no till (NT), rotary tillage (RT), and plow tillage (PT), were established in 2001 in Luancheng County, Hebei Province. The concentration, storage, and SR of SOC and soil total nitrogen (TN) were assessed in both the wheat and maize seasons. Compared with RT and PT, the mean SRs for all depth ratios of SOC under NT increased by 7.85% and 30.61% during the maize season, and by 14.67% and 30.91% during the wheat season, respectively. The SR of TN for 0–5:30–50 cm increased by 140%, 161%, and 161% in the maize season, and 266%, 154%, and 122% in the wheat season compared to the SR for 0–5:5–10 cm under NT, RT and PT, respectively. The data indicated that SOC and TN were both concentrated in the surface-soil layers (0–10 cm) under NT but were distributed relatively evenly through the soil profile under PT. Meanwhile, the storage of SOC and TN was higher under NT for the surface soil (0–10 cm) but was higher under PT for the deeper soil (30–50 cm). Furthermore, the storage of SOC and TN was significantly related to SR of SOC and TN along the whole soil profile (P<0.0001). Therefore, SR could be used to explain and indicate the changes in the storage of SOC and TN. Further, NT stratifies SOC and TN, enhances the topsoil SOC storage, and helps to improve SOC sequestration and soil quality.     

Grazing and Ecosystem Carbon Storage in the North American Great Plains

Isotopic signatures of ¹³C were used to quantify the relative contributions of C₃ and C₄ plants to whole-ecosystem C storage (soil+plant) in grazed and ungrazed sites at three distinct locations (short-, mid- and tallgrass communities) along an east–west environmental gradient in the North American Great Plains. Functional group composition of plant communities, the source and magnitude of carbon inputs, and total ecosystem carbon storage displayed inconsistent responses to long-term livestock grazing along this gradient. C₄ plants [primarily Bouteloua gracilis (H.B.K.) Lag ex Steud.] dominated the long-term grazed site in the shortgrass community, whereas the ungrazed site was co-dominated by C₃ and C₄ species; functional group composition did not differ between grazed and ungrazed sites in the mid- and tallgrass communities. Above-ground biomass was lower, but the relative proportion of fine root biomass was greater, in grazed compared to ungrazed sites at all three locations. The grazed site of the shortgrass community had 24% more whole-ecosystem carbon storage compared to the ungrazed site (4022 vs. 3236 g C m⁻²). In contrast, grazed sites at the mid- and tallgrass communities had slightly lower (8%) whole-ecosystem carbon storage compared to ungrazed sites (midgrass: 7970 vs. 8683 g C m⁻²; tallgrass: 8273 vs. 8997 g C m⁻²). Differential responses between the shortgrass and the mid- and tallgrass communities with respect to grazing and whole-ecosystem carbon storage are likely a result of: (1) maintenance of larger soil organic carbon (SOC) pools in the mid- and tallgrass communities (7476–8280 g C m⁻²) than the shortgrass community (2517–3307 g C m⁻²) that could potentially buffer ecosystem carbon fluxes, (2) lower root carbon/soil carbon ratios in the mid- and tallgrass communities (0.06–0.10) compared to the shortgrass community (0.20–0.27) suggesting that variation in root organic matter inputs would have relatively smaller effects on the size of the SOC pool, and (3) the absence of grazing-induced variation in the relative proportion of C₃ and C₄ functional groups in the mid- and tallgrass communities. We hypothesize that the magnitude and proportion of fine root mass within the upper soil profile is a principal driver mediating the effect of community composition on the biogeochemistry of these grassland ecosystems.     

Climate Variation and Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Cycling Processes in a Northern Hardwood Forest

We exploited the natural climate gradient in the northern hardwood forest at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest (HBEF) to evaluate the effects of climate variation similar to what is predicted to occur with global warming over the next 50–100 years for northeastern North America on soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycle processes. Our objectives were to (1) characterize differences in soil temperature, moisture and frost associated with elevation at the HBEF and (2) evaluate variation in total soil (TSR) and microbial respiration, N mineralization, nitrification, denitrification, nitrous oxide (N₂O) flux, and methane (CH₄) uptake along this gradient. Low elevation sites were consistently warmer (1.5–2.5°C) and drier than high elevation sites. Despite higher temperatures, low elevation plots had less snow and more soil frost than high elevation plots. Net N mineralization and nitrification were slower in warmer, low elevation plots, in both summer and winter. In summer, this pattern was driven by lower soil moisture in warmer soils and in winter the pattern was linked to less snow and more soil freezing in warmer soils. These data suggest that N cycling and supply to plants in northern hardwood ecosystems will be reduced in a warmer climate due to changes in both winter and summer conditions. TSR was consistently faster in the warmer, low elevation plots. N cycling processes appeared to be more sensitive to variation in soil moisture induced by climate variation, whereas C cycling processes appeared to be more strongly influenced by temperature.     

Optimal Fire Regimes for Soil Carbon Storage in Tropical Savannas of Northern Australia

Modification of fire regimes in tropical savannas can have significant impacts on the global carbon (C) cycle, and therefore, on the climate system. In Australian tropical savannas, there has been recent, large-scale implementation of fire management that aims to decrease Kyoto-compliant non-CO₂ greenhouse gas emissions by reducing late dry season intense fires through strategic early dry season burning. However, there is no accounting for changes to soil C stocks resulting from changes to savanna fire management, although impacts on these pools may be considerable. We present a hypothesis that soil C storage is greatest under low intensity fires with an intermediate fire return interval. Simulations using the CENTURY Soil Organic Matter Model confirmed this hypothesis with greatest soil C storage under a fire regime of one low intensity fire every 5 years. Key areas of uncertainty for CENTURY model simulations include fine root dynamics, charcoal production and nitrogen (N) cycling, and better understanding of these processes could improve model predictions. Soil C stocks measured in the field after 5 years of annual, 3 year and unburned fire treatments were not significantly different (range 41–58 t ha⁻¹), but further CENTURY modelling suggests that changes in fire management will take up to 100 years to have a detectable impact (+4 t ha⁻¹) on soil C stocks. However, implementation of fire management that reduces fire frequency and intensity within the large area of intact savanna landscapes in northern Australia could result in emissions savings of 0.17 t CO₂-e ha⁻¹ y⁻¹, four times greater than reductions of non-CO₂ emissions.     

Long-Term Grazing Exclusion Improves the Composition and Stability of Soil Organic Matter in Inner Mongolian Grasslands

Alteration of the composition of soil organic matter (SOM) in Inner Mongolian grassland soils associated with the duration of grazing exclusion (GE) has been considered an important index for evaluating the restoring effects of GE practice. By using five plots from a grassland succession series from free grazing to 31-year GE, we measured the content of soil organic carbon (SOC), humic acid carbon (HAC), fulvic acid carbon (FAC), humin carbon (HUC), and humic acid structure to evaluate the changes in SOM composition. The results showed that SOC, HUC, and the ratios of HAC/FAC and HAC/extractable humus carbon (C) increased significantly with prolonged GE duration, and their relationships can be well fitted by positive exponential equations, except for FAC. In contrast, the HAC content increased logarithmically with prolonged GE duration. Long-term GE enhanced the content of SOC and soil humification, which was obvious after more than 10 years of GE. Solid-state ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy showed that the ratios of alkyl C/O-alkyl C first decreased, and then remained stable with prolonged GE. Alternately, the ratios of aromaticity and hydrophobicity first increased, and then were maintained at relatively stable levels. Thus, a decade of GE improved the composition and structure of SOM in semiarid grassland soil and made it more stable. These findings provide new evidence to support the positive effects of long-term GE on soil SOC sequestration in the Inner Mongolian grasslands, in view of the improvement of SOM structure and stability.     

Effects of Soil Nitrogen Reduction on Nonnative Plants in Restored Grasslands

We studied the cumulative effects of 3 years of carbon amendments on previously disturbed mixed-grass prairie sites near Boulder, Colorado. Analysis of soil inorganic nitrogen during the third field season indicated statistically significant but short-term nitrogen reduction in response to addition of a combination of sugar and sawdust treatments. Plant foliage production was significantly reduced by these carbon amendments and averaged 377 g/m²/year on control plots versus 219 g/m²/year on treated plots. Undesirable species such as Centaurea diffusa (diffuse knapweed) exhibited a similar biomass response. But after three years of treatment there is little evidence to suggest a relative increase in desirable, reseeded species such as Agropyron smithii (western wheatgrass). We suggest that the carbon amendment treatment alone is an inadequate remediation technique in areas exposed to extensive seed rain by exotic species.     

Yield Response of Spring Maize to Inter-Row Subsoiling and Soil Water Deficit in Northern China

BackgroundLong-term tillage has been shown to induce water stress episode during crop growth period due to low water retention capacity. It is unclear whether integrated water conservation tillage systems, such asspringdeepinter-row subsoiling with annual or biennial repetitions, can be developed to alleviate this issue while improve crop productivity.MethodsExperimentswere carried out in a spring maize cropping system on Calcaric-fluvicCambisolsatJiaozuoexperimentstation, northern China, in 2009 to 2014. Effects of threesubsoiling depths (i.e., 30 cm, 40 cm, and 50 cm) in combination with annual and biennial repetitionswasdetermined in two single-years (i.e., 2012 and 2014)againstthe conventional tillage. The objectives were to investigateyield response to subsoiling depths and soil water deficit(SWD), and to identify the most effective subsoiling treatment using a systematic assessment.ResultsAnnualsubsoiling to 50 cm (AS-50) increased soil water storage (SWS, mm) by an average of8% in 0–20 cm soil depth, 19% in 20–80 cm depth, and 10% in 80–120 cm depth, followed by AS-40 and BS-50, whereas AS-30 and BS-30 showed much less effects in increasing SWS across the 0–120 cm soil profile, compared to the CK. AS-50 significantly reduced soil water deficit (SWD, mm) by an average of123% during sowing to jointing, 318% during jointing to filling, and 221% during filling to maturity, compared to the CK, followed by AS-40 and BS-50. An integrated effect on increasing SWS and reducing SWD helped AS-50 boost grain yield by an average of 31% and biomass yield by 30%, compared to the CK. A power function for subsoiling depth and a negative linear function for SWD were used to fit the measured yields, showing the deepest subsoiling depth (50 cm) with the lowest SWD contributed to the highest yield. Systematic assessment showed that AS-50 received the highest evaluation index (0.69 out of 1.0) among all treatments.ConclusionDeepinter-row subsoilingwith annual repetition significantly boosts yield by alleviating SWD in critical growth period and increasing SWS in 20–80 cm soil depth. The results allow us to conclude that AS-50 can be adopted as an effective approach to increase crop productivity, alleviate water stress, and improve soil water availability for spring maize in northern China.     

模拟氮沉降对典型阔叶红松林土壤有机碳和养分的影响简

为探讨氮沉降对典型阔叶红松（Pinus koraiensis）林的影响,从2008年6月~2010年8月进行了人工模拟氮沉降实验,实验分为对照、低N、中N、高N4个处理,每个处理3个重复。所施氮肥为CO(NH₂)₂,以溶液的形式喷施,4个处理浓度分别为0、30、60、120 kg·hm^-2·a^-1。在氮沉降进行1年后,采集各处理0～20、20～40和40～60 cm的土壤样品,测定其土壤有机C、全N、碱解N和速效P、速效K。结果表明：相同处理下,有机C和全N含量随土层的加深均逐渐减少。总体上低、中N处理显著增加了土壤有机C、碱解N和速效K含量,中、高N处理显著降低了土壤速效P含量（P<0.05）,而对全N含量影响不显著（P>0.05）。土壤有机C与土壤全N、碱解N、速效P、速效K之间存在极显著正相关关系（P<0.001）。有机C和土壤养分对氮沉降的响应说明氮沉降在短期内可能影响阔叶红松林土壤碳库积累和土壤肥力水平。     

模拟放牧斑块与氮素添加对半干旱草原群落植物生长的影响(英文)

放牧时,动物采食及其排泄物会影响植物的生长,但动物采食及其排泄物的空间异质性可能会影响这种效应。在位于我国北方典型农牧交错区的内蒙古多伦县,我们研究了模拟放牧斑块和施氮肥对植物生长的影响,实验采用模拟放牧采食斑块(刈割半径分别为0、10、20、40和80 cm)和土壤施氮(分别为0、5、10、20 g N/m2)两种处理,植物地上部收获后分为绿体和立枯两部分,并分析其含氮量。结果表明,刈割降低了植物的生物量(41.5％),而施氮可增加生物量(57.8％)。刈割对植物生长的抑制作用在面积最小又施肥的斑块上表现更明显。土壤施氮可以促进植物生长并且影响刈割效应。同时植物的绿-枯比随施氮水平的增加而增加,因此氮会延迟植物的衰老。以上结果表明,刈割(模拟动物采食)斑块的大小会影响草原植物的生长,土壤施氮(模拟动物尿氮)可以提高草原生态系统的初级生产力,并且影响刈割效应。     

Transport of Carbon and Nitrogen Between Litter and Soil Organic Matter in a Northern Hardwood Forest

We used sugar maple litter double-labeled with ¹³C and ¹⁵N to quantify fluxes of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) between litter and soil in a northern hardwood forest and the retention of litter C and N in soil. Two cohorts of litter were compared, one in which the label was preferentially incorporated into non-structural tissue and the other structural tissue. Loss of ¹³C from this litter generally followed dry mass and total C loss whereas loss of ¹⁵N (20–30% in 1 year) was accompanied by large increases of total N content of this decaying litter (26–32%). Enrichment of ¹³C and ¹⁵N was detected in soil down to 10–15 cm depth. After 6 months of decay (November–May) 36–43% of the ¹³C released from the litter was recovered in the soil, with no differences between the structural and non-structural labeled litter. By October the percentage recovery of litter ¹³C in soil was much lower (16%). The C released from litter and remaining in soil organic matter (SOM) after 1 year represented over 30 g C m⁻² y⁻¹ of SOM accumulation. Recovery of litter ¹⁵N in soil was much higher than for C (over 90%) and in May ¹⁵N was mostly in organic horizons whereas by October it was mostly in 0–10 cm mineral soil. A small proportion of this N was recovered as inorganic N (2–6%). Recovery of ¹⁵N in microbial biomass was higher in May (13–15%) than in October (about 5%). The C:N ratio of the SOM and microbial biomass derived from the labeled litter was much higher for the structural than the non-structural litter and for the forest floor than mineral SOM, illustrating the interactive role of substrates and microbial activity in regulating the C:N stoichiometry of forest SOM formation. These results for a forest ecosystem long exposed to chronically high atmospheric N deposition (ca. 10 kg N ha⁻¹ y⁻¹) suggest possible mechanisms of N retention in soil: increased organic N leaching from fresh litter and reduced fungal transport of N from soil to decaying litter may promote N stabilization in mineral SOM even at a relatively low C:N ratio.     

Response of Oxidative Enzyme Activities to Nitrogen Deposition Affects Soil Concentrations of Dissolved Organic Carbon

Recent evidence suggests that atmospheric nitrate (NO ₃ ⁻ ) deposition can alter soil carbon (C) storage by directly affecting the activity of lignin-degrading soil fungi. In a laboratory experiment, we studied the direct influence of increasing soil NO ₃ ⁻ concentration on microbial C cycling in three different ecosystems: black oak–white oak (BOWO), sugar maple–red oak (SMRO), and sugar maple–basswood (SMBW). These ecosystems span a broad range of litter biochemistry and recalcitrance; the BOWO ecosystem contains the highest litter lignin content, SMRO had intermediate lignin content, and SMBW leaf litter has the lowest lignin content. We hypothesized that increasing soil solution NO ₃ ⁻ would reduce lignolytic activity in the BOWO ecosystem, due to a high abundance of white-rot fungi and lignin-rich leaf litter. Due to the low lignin content of litter in the SMBW, we further reasoned that the NO ₃ ⁻ repression of lignolytic activity would be less dramatic due to a lower relative abundance of white-rot basidiomycetes; the response in the SMRO ecosystem should be intermediate. We increased soil solution NO ₃ ⁻ concentrations in a 73-day laboratory incubation and measured microbial respiration and soil solution dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and phenolics concentrations. At the end of the incubation, we measured the activity of β-glucosidase, N-acetyl-glucosaminidase, phenol oxidase, and peroxidase, which are extracellular enzymes involved with cellulose and lignin degradation. We quantified the fungal biomass, and we also used fungal ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis (RISA) to gain insight into fungal community composition. In the BOWO ecosystem, increasing NO ₃ ⁻ significantly decreased oxidative enzyme activities (−30% to −54%) and increased DOC (+32% upper limit) and phenolic (+77% upper limit) concentrations. In the SMRO ecosystem, we observed a significant decrease in phenol oxidase activity (−73% lower limit) and an increase in soluble phenolic concentrations (+57% upper limit) in response to increasing NO ₃ ⁻ in soil solution, but there was no significant change in DOC concentration. In contrast to these patterns, increasing soil solution NO ₃ ⁻ in the SMBW soil resulted in significantly greater phenol oxidase activity (+700% upper limit) and a trend toward lower DOC production (−52% lower limit). Nitrate concentration had no effect on microbial respiration or β-glucosidase or N-acetyl-glucosaminidase activities. Fungal abundance and basidiomycete diversity tended to be highest in the BOWO soil and lowest in the SMBW, but neither displayed a consistent response to NO ₃ ⁻ additions. Taken together, our results demonstrate that oxidative enzyme production by microbial communities responds directly to NO ₃ ⁻ deposition, controlling extracellular enzyme activity and DOC flux. The regulation of oxidative enzymes by different microbial communities in response to NO ₃ ⁻ deposition highlights the fact that the composition and function of soil microbial communities directly control ecosystem-level responses to environmental change.