Organomercurial resistance determinants in Pseudomonas K-62 are present on two plasmids

Pseudomonas strain K-62 was found to contain six plasmids. A mutant derivative cured of the 26-kb plasmid showed a higher sensitivity to mercurials; however, the strain was still able to volatilize them. Loss of the 68-kb plasmid.in addition to the 26-kb plasmid abolished the ability of mercury volatilization in this strain and led to a further decrease in the level of mercurial resistance. These results are the first to demonstrate that the organomercurial resistance of Pseudomonas strain K-62 is plasmid-based, and that both the 26- and 68-kb plasmids are required for full expression of the mercurial resistance. Probes specific for the mer genes merA, merB, and merR strongly hybridized with the 26-kb plasmid, but not with the 68-kb plasmid. Two fragments of the 26-kb plasmid that hybridized with the mer genes were cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. One recombinant plasmid (pMRA17) inducibly encoded a typical broad-spectrum mercurial resistance, whereas the other recombinant plasmid (pMRB01) constitutively conferred hypersensitivity to phenylmercury in the absence of mercuric reductase activity. The results suggest that the two organomercurial lyases in the cells are transcribed from different operator-promoters.     

A kinetic study on the plasmid stability of three <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lactococcus lactis</Emphasis> strains

Absract The plasmid stability of three wild type Lactococcus lactis strains and their mutants was investigated at different incubation time and temperatures in two different media [M17 broth and reconstituted skim milk (RSM)]. The results showed that both incubation times and temperature are effective on plasmid loss. The plasmid profiles of wild type strains exhibited 8 to 9 distinct plasmid species with molecular weights from 2.1 to 24.0 kb. Lactose fermentation ability was found to be encoded by 22.2 (strain U70), 23.6 (strain U29) and 24.0 (strain U52) kb plasmids in the wild type strains, respectively. The stabilities of the plasmids were explained by applying a second-order polynomial modeling system. Reasonable fittings were obtained for the model and the adjusted regression coefficients (R ² _adj) were between 0.76 and 0.99 for the overall data. Overall, it was found that incubation time had the most profound effect on plasmid stability, with plasmid loss occurring after 72 h, while temperatures in the range of 15–40°C also induced plasmid instability.     

Killer toxin producing strains of the yeasts Hanseniaspora uvarum and Pichia kluyveri

By heat treatment killer strains of the type K1 of Saccharomyces cerevisiae that are known to harbour dsRNA plasmids were completely cured, whereas only a small fraction of the clones of the killer type K2 had lost the dsRNA dependent killer character. The K2 killers but not the strains of killer type K1 were easily cured by cycloheximide. Killer strains of Hanseniaspora uvarum were not curable by heat treatment. Curing was successfull with cycloheximide or 5-fluorouracil. Two double-stranded RNA plasmids were detected in the killer strains of H. uvarum. The smaller dsRNA plasmid was absent in the strains that were cured of their killer character by 5-fluorouracil. The killer character of H. uvarum was transferred to S. cerevisiae by spheroplast fusion. The fusion products showing the killer character contained both dsRNA plasmids, obviously the smaller plasmid (M-dsRNA) carries the genes for killer toxin formation. Killer strains of Pichia kluyveri were not curable of their killer character, in these strains no dsRNA plasmids were detected.This paper was kindly supported by a grant from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft     

Adhesion and invasion of a mutant Shigella flexneri to an eukaryotic cell line in absence of the 220-kb virulence plasmid

A Shigella flexneri strain, cured of the large 220-kb virulence plasmid, expresses adhering and invading ability in confluent monolayers of HeLa cells similar to its parent strain. Invasion by both the parent and the cured strains resulted in alteration of the monomeric actin (G) in the total actin pool of HeLa cells. Other indicators of invasive characteristics of virulent Shigella strains such as production of keratoconjunctivitis in guinea pig eye in vivo, Congo red binding and expression of contact hemolysin however, indicated loss of invasive properties in the plasmid cured strain. Further, pretreatment of bacterial cells with para-bromophenacyl bromide (p-BPB), a specific chemical inhibitor of phospholipase A, adversely affected adhesion to and invasion of HeLa cells in vitro, irrespective of the presence of the 220-kb plasmid indicating the possible involvement of the enzyme phospholipase A in the invasion process. Adherence of both the strains to guinea pig colonic epithelial cells (CECs) in vitro was reduced significantly on pretreatment of bacteria or CECs with p-BPB. Expression of exocellular enzymes viz. protease, elastase, phospholipase A and phospholipase C were not related to the large plasmid.     

Distribution and homology of plasmids in several strains of Cyanothece

The plasmid distribution of several clonal isolates of the unicellular, diazotrophic, cyanobacterium Cyanothece sp. has been analyzed. The Cyanothece isolates contain three to four plasmids ranging in size from 4.8 kb to 40 kb. The plasmid profiles of three Cyanothece strains (BH63, BH68, BH93) indicated that strains BH68 and BH93 were closely related and that strain BH63 may be more distantly related. A small 4.8-kb plasmid (pSE480), from the clonal isolate Cyanothece sp. strain BH68F, has been subcloned and restriction mapped. Ten restriction sites have been mapped, five of which are unique and suitable for further subcloning. Southern hybridization revealed that this plasmid was present in two out of five clonal isolates of strain BH68 and in one isolate of strain BH93. A 10-kb plasmid from strain BH68F (pSE1000) was found in all of the BH68 isolates and was absent in the BH93 isolate, Cyanothece sp. strain BH93A. No notable physiological changes were observed in the absence of either the 4.8-kb or 10-kb plasmids. Therefore, these plasmids remain cryptic. Further analysis of these plasmids may provide insight into the function of these plasmids and will allow the construction of shuttle vectors for gene transfer experiments.     

Melanin production encoded by a cryptic plasmid in a Rhizobium leguminosarum strain

Rhizobium leguminosarum strain VF39, isolated from nodules of field-grown faba beans in the Federal Republic of Germany, was shown to contain six plasmids ranging in molecular weight from 90 to 400 Md. Hybridisation to nif gene probes, plasmid curing, and mobilisation to other strains of Rhizobium and to Agrobacterium showed that the third largest plasmid, pRleVF39d (220 Md), carried genes for nodulation and nitrogen fixation. This plasmid was incompatible with pRL10JI, the Sym plasmid of R. leguminosarum strain JB300. Of the other plasmids, the two smallest (pRleVF39a and pRleVF39b, 90 and 160 Md respectively) were shown to be self-transmissible at a low frequency. Although melanin production is as yet unreported in strains of R. leguminosarum biovar viceae, strain VF39 produced a dark pigment, which, since it was not produced on minimal media and its production was greatly enhanced by the presence of tyrosine in the media, is probably melanin-like. Derivatives of VF39 cured of pRleVF39a no longer produced this pigment, but regained the ability to produce it when this plasmid was transferred into them. Strains of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, R. meliloti, and some strains of R. leguminosarum carrying pRleVF39a did not produce this pigment, indicating perhaps that some genes elsewhere on the VF39 genome are also involved in pigment production. Plasmid pRleVF39a appeared to be incompatible with the cryptic Rhizobium plasmids pRle336b and pRL8JI (both ca. 100 Md), but was compatible with the R. leguminosarum biovar phaseoli Sym plasmids pRP1JI, pRP2JI and pRph51a, all of which also code for melanin production. The absence of pRleVF39a in cured derivatives of VF39 had no effect on the symbiotic performance or competitive ability of this strain.     

Cloning of the Genes That Control Formation of the Fimbrial Colonization Factor Antigen III (CFA/III) from an Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli strain 260-1 produces colonization factor antigen III and heat-labile enterotoxin. A 55-kb plasmid controlling the expression of the colonization factor antigen was isolated from this strain after it was labeled with ampicillin resistance transposon, Tn3. When this plasmid was introduced into E. coli K-12 strains, it induced the formation of pili that were morphologically and immunologically identical to those on the surface of 260-1 cells, as examined by electron microscopic observation and with the specific antiserum. The physical map of the plasmid was constructed, and the 17.4-kb region was found to be responsible for the expression of the pili.     

The integrated and free states of Streptomyces griseus plasmid pSG1

A 16.6-kb plasmid-pSG1-was isolated from Streptomyces griseus following transformation of protoplasts with unrelated plasmids. Southern hybridization experiments with radioactive probes prepared from pSG1 fragments and immobilized S. griseus DNA fragments indicated that the plasmid was present in the progenitor strain, in an integrated state. In the pSG1+ isolates plasmid sequences existed both as integrated sequences and as free plasmids. The integrated state of maintenance persisted in strains which have been cured of the free plasmid. The junction site on the plasmid was located on a 0.5-kb EcoRI-SalI fragment. The chromosomal integration site was demonstrated to be the same in all strains derived from S. griseus NRRL3851. The occurrence of both states of plasmid maintenance in the same clones indicates that an integrated pSG1 sequence does not interfere with free plasmid replication and partition. It suggests that the establishment of the free state may involve a replicative excision of pSG1 from the S. griseus chromosome.     

Characteristics of Plasmids in Rhizobium huakuii

Rhizobium huakuii nodulates Astragalus sinicus, an important green manuring crop in Southern China, which can be used as forage. The plasmid profiles of 154 R. huakuii strains were examined with the Eckhardt procedure. The plasmid number of the strains varied from one to five, and their molecular weights were estimated from 42 to 600 mDa or more. The plasmids were hybridized with probes nodABC and nifHDK. The results showed that there was one plasmid carrying the nod and nif genes in the strains that harbor two or more plasmids, and the molecular weights of the symbiotic plasmids varied from 117 to 251 mDa. Homology was not observed on plasmids in the strains having only one plasmid; presumably the symbiotic genes are on the chromosome. Plasmid curing was carried out with the Bacillus subtilus sacB to generate derivatives of Rhizobium huakuii strain CH203, which harbors three plasmids, pRHa(97MD), pRHb(168MD), and pRHc(251MD). The largest plasmid (pRHc) carried both nodulation and nitrogen fixation genes. When pRHc was cured, the strain lost its symbiotic ability. The other two plasmids were also related to symbiosis. The derivative cured of pRHb did not nodulate on the host plant, had an altered lipopolysaccharide, and grew much more slowly than the parent strain. Curing of the smallest plasmid (pRHa) resulted in delaying the strain nodulation and made it lose nitrogen fixation ability. Curing of each plasmid in strain CH203 reduced its acid tolerance. Complementation of plasmid-cured strains with appropriate plasmids restored their original phenotypes. Received: 18 December 1996 / Accepted: 28 March 1997     

Cloning of oxetanocin A biosynthetic and resistance genes that reside on a plasmid of Bacillus megaterium strain NK84-0128

Bacillus megaterium strain NK84-0218 produces a potent antiviral antibiotic, oxetanocin A, which has an oxetanosyl-N-glycoside linkage to an adenine moiety. However, the oxetanocin A productivity of the original strain was unstable and low. In this study, oxetanocin A productivity and resistance was shown to be lost simultaneously when a 51.5-kb plasmid, pOXT1, was cured during cultivation. The deficiency of oxetanocin A productivity and resistance was restored by re-introduction of the pOXT1 plasmid into the cured strain. By a cloning experiment it was shown that a 6.8-kb BglI-D fragment of the pOXT1 plasmid was responsible for oxetanocin A productivity and resistance.     

Assignment of biological functions to specific plasmids in a local isolate ofRhizobium cicer

The genetic basis of symbiosis, mucoid structure and melanin biosynthesis in a local isolate ofRhizobium cicer was investigated. The strain was a very effective symbiont and produced substantial amounts of exopolysaccharides and melanin. It harbored three high-molar-mass plasmids of 55, 80 and 130 kb, respectively. Thirty-one melanin production-negative (Mep⁻) derivatives were obtained through plasmid curing. The plasmid patterns of cured derivatives indicated that the loss of 55 and/or 80 kb plasmids was sufficient for obtaining Mep⁻ phenotype. The specific involvement of 55-kb plasmid in melanin production was confirmed upon re-introduction of this plasmid into one of the Mep⁻ derivatives. Further investigation also indicated that the 130-kb plasmid might be necessary for both mucoidal appearance and symbiotic functions.     

Genetic transfer of lithoautotrophy mediated by a plasmid-cointegrate from Pseudomonas facilis

Pseudomonas facilis (DSM 620) is host of two plasmids one of which (pHG22-a) has been shown to be involved in lithoautotrophic metabolism. The lithoautotrophic marker was transferred via conjugation to mutants of two wild type strains of P. facilis and to the heterotrophic bacterium Pseudomonas delafieldii. The transfer required mobilization by the IncP1 plasmid RP4. Transconjugants contained a plasmid which neither correlated in size with RP4 nor with pHG22-a. This newly formed plasmid, pHG22-c, was shown to be a cointegrate consisting of RP4 DNA and a 50-kb insert derived from the native plasmid pHG22-a. DNA-DNA hybridization using lithoautotrophic genes of Alcaligenes eutrophus as DNA probes, revealed the presence of hydrogenase structural and regulatory genes in addition to genes of autotrophic carbon dioxide fixation on the cointegrate pHG22-c.     

Genetic characterization of pAsa6, a new plasmid from Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida that encodes a type III effector protein AopH homolog

A new plasmid designated pAsa6 from an Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida strain isolated from diseased turbot has been characterized. pAsa6 consists of 18536 bp, has a G+C content of 53.8% and encodes 20 predicted open-reading frames (ORFs). Eight ORFs showed homology to transposases, of which six are complete and two are partial IS sequences. Two ORFs showed homology to replication proteins, and six ORFs showed homology to hypothetical proteins. Two ORFs are truncated homologs of putative A. salmonicida sulfatases. Two genes, aopH and sycH encode homologs of an effector protein for which a role in fish colonization by A. salmonicida has been previously reported, and its chaperone, respectively. The results of filter conjugation experiments suggested that pAsa6 is not mobilizable, as it failed to be conjugally-transferred to several species of marine bacteria tested. All the ORFs of pAsa6 with the exception of four copies of a IS1 transposase gene, have a counterpart in the recently sequenced 155-kb A. salmonicida plasmid pAsa5, suggesting either that pAsa6 is a derivative of pAsa5, or that pAsa5 is the result of the fusion of a pAsa6-like plasmid and a larger plasmid of ca. 135-kb. The pAsa6-encoded repA and aopH genes could be PCR-amplified from strains lacking pAsa6, suggesting presence of a large, possibly pAsa5-like plasmid that was not detected on agarose gels, or the existence of chromosome-integrated plasmid sequences. This study demonstrates that genomic locations for the aopH gene different to pAsa5 or pAsa5-like plasmids exist in A. salmonicida.     

A histidine kinase sensor protein gene is necessary for induction of low pH tolerance in Sinorhizobium sp. strain BL3

The aim of this investigation was to identify and isolate genes involved in acid tolerance from Sinorhizobium sp. strain BL3. It was hypothesized that acid tolerance of strain BL3 could be enhanced by high level expression of certain genes involved in acid tolerance, following insertion of these genes in a multiple copy plasmid. A cosmid clone library of BL3 was introduced into BL3, and the transconjugant colonies were selected at low pH. A single cosmid containing genes for acid tolerance was isolated from 40 different colonies. By transposon–insertion mutagenesis, subcloning and DNA sequencing, a gene involved in acid tolerance, actX, was identified in a 4.4-kb fragment of this cosmid. The actX mutant of BL3 showed increased acid sensitivity and was complemented by the 4.4-kb subcloned fragment. Phaseolus lathyroides seedlings inoculated with recombinant strains containing multiple copies of actX showed increased symbiotic performance at low pH. By constructing an actX::gus fusion, it was shown that actX was induced at low pH. actX encodes a putative histidine kinase sensor protein of a two-component regulatory system. The method of gene identification used in this study for isolation of actX may be applied for the isolation of other genes involved in tolerance to adverse environmental factors.     

Syringomycin production and holcus spot disease of maize: Plasmid-associated properties inPseudomonas syringae

The majority of pathogenic strains ofPseudomonas syringae produce the phytotoxin syringomycin. After treatment ofP. syringae with acridine organe, some surviving isolates were unable to produce the toxin or disease in maize plants. DNA analysis of strain HS191 revealed the presence of a single, 35-megadalton plasmid, designated pCG131; no detectable plasmid was seen in the cured derivative. Comparative studies with the parent and cured strains showed an association between the presence of the plasmid and the following properties: syringomycin production, resistance to bacteriocin PSC-1B, and resistance to phages Psp1 and Psy4A.     

Natural plasmid transformation in a high-frequency-of-transformation marine Vibrio strain.

The estuarine bacterium Vibrio strain DI-9 has been shown to be naturally transformable with both broad host range plasmid multimers and homologous chromosomal DNA at average frequencies of 3.5 X 10(-9) and 3.4 X 10(-7) transformants per recipient, respectively. Growth of plasmid transformants in nonselective medium resulted in cured strains that transformed 6 to 42, 857 times more frequently than the parental strain, depending on the type of transforming DNA. These high-frequency-of-transformation (HfT) strains were transformed at frequencies ranging from 1.1 X 10(-8) to 1.3 X 10(-4) transformants per recipient with plasmid DNA and at an average frequency of 8.3 X 10(-5) transformants per recipient with homologous chromosomal DNA. The highest transformation frequencies were observed by using multimers of an R1162 derivative carrying the transposon Tn5 (pQSR50). Probing of total DNA preparations from one of the cured strains demonstrated that no plasmid DNA remained in the cured strains which may have provided homology to the transforming DNA. All transformants and cured strains could be differentiated from the parental strains by colony morphology. DNA binding studies indicated that late-log-phase HfT strains bound [3H]bacteriophage lambda DNA 2.1 times more rapidly than the parental strain. These results suggest that the original plasmid transformation event of strain DI-9 was the result of uptake and expression of plasmid DNA by a competent mutant (HfT strain). Additionally, it was found that a strain of Vibrio parahaemolyticus, USFS 3420, could be naturally transformed with plasmid DNA. Natural plasmid transformation by high-transforming mutants may be a means of plasmid acquisition by natural aquatic bacterial populations.     

Natural plasmid transformation in a high-frequency-of-transformation marine Vibrio strain

The estuarine bacterium Vibrio strain DI-9 has been shown to be naturally transformable with both broad host range plasmid multimers and homologous chromosomal DNA at average frequencies of 3.5 X 10(-9) and 3.4 X 10(-7) transformants per recipient, respectively. Growth of plasmid transformants in nonselective medium resulted in cured strains that transformed 6 to 42, 857 times more frequently than the parental strain, depending on the type of transforming DNA. These high-frequency-of-transformation (HfT) strains were transformed at frequencies ranging from 1.1 X 10(-8) to 1.3 X 10(-4) transformants per recipient with plasmid DNA and at an average frequency of 8.3 X 10(-5) transformants per recipient with homologous chromosomal DNA. The highest transformation frequencies were observed by using multimers of an R1162 derivative carrying the transposon Tn5 (pQSR50). Probing of total DNA preparations from one of the cured strains demonstrated that no plasmid DNA remained in the cured strains which may have provided homology to the transforming DNA. All transformants and cured strains could be differentiated from the parental strains by colony morphology. DNA binding studies indicated that late-log-phase HfT strains bound [3H]bacteriophage lambda DNA 2.1 times more rapidly than the parental strain. These results suggest that the original plasmid transformation event of strain DI-9 was the result of uptake and expression of plasmid DNA by a competent mutant (HfT strain). Additionally, it was found that a strain of Vibrio parahaemolyticus, USFS 3420, could be naturally transformed with plasmid DNA. Natural plasmid transformation by high-transforming mutants may be a means of plasmid acquisition by natural aquatic bacterial populations.     

Biological characteristics of plasmids of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mesorhizobium huakuii</Emphasis> HN3015 from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Astragalus sinicus</Emphasis>

A Mesorhizobium huakuii strain HN3015 was isolated from Astragalus sinicus in a rice-growing field of Southern China. Strain HN3015 contained three large plasmids. The three indigenous plasmids, named as pMhHN3015a, pMhHN3015b and pMhHN3015c of M. huakuii HN3015, were, respectively, cured by Tn5-sacB insertion. The mutant strain HN3015-1 cured with its largest plasmid pMhHN3015c formed only white null nodules. Mutant HN3015-3 cured with its smallest plasmid pMhHN3015a could form pink effective nodules. However, mutant HN3015-2 cured of the second largest plasmid pMhHN3015b lost nodulation ability. Furthermore, curing of pMhHN3015a had enhanced competitive nodulation ability and symbiotic efficiency of HN3015-3. The results from acidity tolerance assays indicated that the three plasmids in M. huakuii HN3015 had a positive control effect on acidity tolerance of HN3015, and all indigenous plasmids of M. huakuii HN3015 had a negative control effect on the alkali tolerance capacity of HN3015. Surprisingly, all plasmids in M. huakuii HN3015 had also a negative control effect on its growth rate. The results showed an interactive and functional complexity of plasmids in strain HN3015.     

Population heterogeneity of plasmid-bearing and plasmid-freeBacillus subtilis strains under different environmental conditions

The population heterogeneity of recombinant and plasmid-freeBacillus subtilis strains introduced into aquatic microcosms was studied. After introduction, the population of the plasmid-free strainB. subtilis 2335 in microcosms has long been represented by both vegetative cells and spores, whereas, already ten days after introduction, the population of the recombinant strainB. subtilis 2335/105 (Km^rInf⁺) was represented only by spores. The number of plasmid copies in the spore isolates of the recombinant strain was the same as before introduction, but the plasmid abundance in the vegetative isolates of this strain decreased. The isolates ofB. subtilis 2335/105 obtained from microcosms and the variants of this strain obtained by ten successive subcultures on M9 and 0. I× M9 media with and without kanamycin (Km) differed in the number of plasmid copies, Km resistance, and maximum biomass yield during batch cultivation. Irrespective of the presence of Km, more than 50% of the variants subcultured on M9 medium showed reduced plasmid abundance. At the same time, about 70% of the variants subcultured on 0.1 × M9 medium with Km and 90% of the variants subcultured on the same medium without Km retained the initial number of plasmid copies. The variants subcultured on media with Km retained the initial biomass level. In more than 70% of the variants isolated from media without Km, the biomass yield increased.