Successful breeding attempt of a pair of Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) in a conservation center in Bilar,Bohol, Philippines and recommendations for tarsier husbandry

The Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) belongs to the least known nocturnal primates. Tarsiers and remaining biodiversity of the Philippines are under tremendous threats from increasing human expansion, with habitat loss and illegal pet trade being the main reasons for tarsier population decline. In addition, even though the attempts were made by western and local facilities, tarsiers have not survived well in captivity. In this paper, I present an example of successful breeding of the Philippine tarsier in captive conditions but in natural climate. As the most important elements of success, I see a large amount of space provided to tarsiers, the climate similar to their natural habitat and the food resembling their natural diet. Our pair of tarsiers were joined during the mating period and held separately outside the mating period, which corresponds with their behavior in the wild and may have played a crucial role in breeding success. Eliminating stress to animals is also important. The study can provide valuable guidelines for other facilities keeping tarsiers in the Philippines and help to improve tarsiers’ welfare and in the future help to establish a viable captive population of the Philippine tarsier that will serve as a backup population and also will decrease demand on tarsiers captured from the wild.     

Habitat use,foraging behavior,and activity patterns in reproducing western tarsiers,Tarsius bancanus,in captivity: A managment synthesis

As the only obligatorily predatory primates, tarsiers are notoriously difficult to keep successfully in captivity. Here we report empirical and experimental results from a 5-year study of behavior and life history in captive Tarsius bancanus. Four reproducing adult tarsiers used space nonrandomly, preferring small-diameter vertical or near-vertical locomotor substrates at midlevel enclosure heights (1.2–2.1 m) for sleeping, scanning, and prey capture. The tarsiers were completely nocturnal, and spent 78% of the scotophase scanning, 13% sleeping, and 9% in prey capture and other activities. Only live crickets were eaten; prey capture rates were highest in the first hour after waking, but overall activity rates were highest later in the scotophase. Adult males and nonpregnant or lactating females ingested approximately 44.7–49.7 kJ/day. Growing and lactating individuals ingested approximately 84.4–94.1 KJ/day. An energetically conservative, sit-and-wait predatory strategy was employed, in which 88% of capture attempts were successful. Most successful prey captures involved reaching for, or leaping from, 90° or 60° supports in a horizontal or downward direction onto prey less than 0.6 m away. Virtually all prey captures were in arboreal locations, despite much higher densities of crickets on enclosure floors. Prey capture rates during the first hour of the nocturnal activity period were positively correlated with arboreal cricket densities. At constant arboreal cricket densities, capture rates were negatively correlated with ambient light intensity, with optimum levels for prey capture ranging from 0.1 to 2.0 Lux. In terms of social behavior, these T. bancanus were nongregarious. Females enforced interindividual spacing by chasing and displacing males. Chase/displacement rates increased significantly during late pregnancy and lactation, apparently in an attempt to keep males from harassing infants. There was no direct male parental care. Infants were precocial at birth, and grew at a rate of 0.35–0.5 g/day, until nutritional weaning at approximately 60 days of age. The implications of specialized predatory morphology and behavior for management are discussed. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Optimal conditions for breeding of captive humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti): A survey of British zoos

We surveyed 16 British zoos and bird gardens to assess the optimal conditions for breeding of captive Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti). We obtained information on population, enclosure, and husbandry characteristics and related these variables to three measures of per capita breeding success, namely, per capita egg productivity, chick productivity, and hatching success (measured as the proportion of eggs laid that hatched). All three fitness measures increased with an increasing number of breeding pairs and total population size but were not related to population density. Once the effect of number of breeding pairs was removed statistically, chick productivity was found to be highest when nesting boxes were lined with sand and gravel instead of alternative substrata such as twigs or vegetation. Hatching success increased with increasing pool size and was highest in enclosures with concrete floors. Adult mortality in zoos was generally low and appeared related to the use of chlorine in freshwater pools and to the presence of other penguin species in Humboldt penguin displays. Several enclosure and husbandry parameters were not variable enough to assess their impact on reproduction of captive Humboldt penguins. Recommendations for optimising conditions for captive breeding of Humboldt penguins include keeping as large a population as possible in a concrete enclosure with a large pool area, while providing sand and gravel as nesting material. Bird density may be important but we did not detect detrimental effects on breeding for densities up to 0.25 birds m^–2. Adult mortality can be minimised by exhibiting Humboldt penguins in single‐species display and avoiding chlorination of pool water. An experimental approach is recommended to confirm the results of this correlational study. Zoo Biol 20:545–555, 2001. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Acid‐insoluble ash as a measure of dry matter digestibility in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana)

There are limited data on the diet dry matter digestibility (DMD) of captive African elephants. Although the total fecal collection method is the standard for determining DMD, it is labor‐intensive, time‐consuming, and expensive. The acid‐insoluble ash (AIA) marker technique has been used successfully to determine DMD in ruminants and monogastrics. The objective of this study was to assess how accurately the AIA marker technique could estimate the DMD of captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Three mature male African elephants at Disney's Animal Kingdom in Florida were used in this study. The animals were offered a Bermuda grass hay‐based ration, and the total dry matter intake (DMI) and total fecal output were measured daily over a 7‐day period to determine the total collection DMD. The feed ingredients and fecal samples were also analyzed for AIA. Although there were differences (P<0.05) in total DMI and total fecal outputs, the DMD values did not (P>0.05) differ (35.1±0.72 vs. 37.1±0.72 for total collection and AIA, respectively). There was a linear (y=0.9461x; R²=0.74) relationship between the total collection and AIA marker technique DMD values. These results suggest that AIA can be used to accurately estimate the DMD of captive African elephants. Zoo Biol 0:1–5, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Utilization of space by adult and juvenile groups of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

A systematic analysis of space utilization in the home enclosures of four adult and three juvenile social groups of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) was conducted at the Primate Foundation of Arizona. The locations of all members of each group (excluding nursing infants) were recorded several times per week over a 3-month period. Adult chimpanzees were observed significantly more often in small vs large cages, on upper vs lower levels, and near cage perimeters vs cage centers. Analyses of sex differences in adults revealed that adult females are largely responsible for these space use patterns; adult males show only a significantly higher usage of perimeter areas. Individual differences were found in the habitual use of certain enclosure sites. Juveniles show no spatial patterns with regard to the above parameters but appear to evenly use all available space. Both adults and juveniles were observed to be in contact with mesh barriers more often than with solid walls. These findings suggest important elements that should be incorporated into the caging design of captive chimpanzee facilities.     

Development of restoration techniques for Hawaiian thrushes: Collection of wild eggs,artificial incubation,hand‐rearing,captive‐breeding,and re‐introduction to the wild

From 1995 to 1999, two species of endemic Hawaiian thrushes, `Oma`o (Myadestes obscurus) and Puaiohi (M. palmeri), were captive‐reared and re‐introduced into their historic range in Hawai`i by The Peregrine Fund, in collaboration with the U.S. Geological Survey–Biological Resources Division (BRD) and the Hawai`i State Department of Land and Natural Resources. This paper describes the management techniques that were developed (collection of wild eggs, artificial incubation, hand‐rearing, captive propagation, and release) with the non‐endangered surrogate species, the `Oma`o; techniques that are now being used for recovery of the endangered Puaiohi. In 1995 and 1996, 29 viable `Oma`o eggs were collected from the wild. Of 27 chicks hatched, 25 were hand‐reared and released into Pu`u Wa`awa`a Wildlife Reserve. Using the techniques developed for the `Oma`o, a captive propagation and release program was initiated in 1996 to aid the recovery of the endangered Puaiohi. Fifteen viable Puaiohi eggs were collected from the wild (1996–1997) to establish a captive breeding flock to produce birds for re‐introduction. These Puaiohi reproduced for the first time in captivity in 1998 (total Puaiohi chicks reared in captivity 1996–1998 = 41). In 1999, 14 captive‐bred Puaiohi were re‐introduced into the Alaka`i Swamp, Kaua`i. These captive‐bred birds reproduced and fledged seven chicks in the wild after release. This is the first endangered passerine recovery program using this broad spectrum of management techniques (collection of wild eggs, artificial incubation, hand‐rearing, captive‐breeding, and release) in which re‐introduced birds survived and bred in the wild. Long‐term population monitoring will be published separately [BRD, in preparation]. Zoo Biol 19:263–277, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Development of husbandry practices for the captive breeding of key largo woodrats (Neotoma floridana smalli)

The Key Largo woodrat is an endangered rodent endemic to the island of Key Largo in the Florida Keys. After several reports documented a steep decline in the population, the US Fish and Wildlife Service developed a recovery plan, including captive breeding and reintroduction. Captive breeding efforts were to be focused on providing animals for future reintroduction to protected areas on Key Largo. However, little was known about the husbandry needs or reproductive behavior of this elusive nocturnal species. In 2005, Disney's Animal Kingdom^® received 11 animals and began to systematically investigate methods of breeding Key Largo woodrats. Since the program's inception, 30 pups have been born and successfully parent reared. In this report, we describe some of the husbandry techniques that have contributed to the success of the Key Largo woodrat captive breeding program at Disney's Animal Kingdom^®. The results obtained may be of use to other facilities maintaining woodrats and other rodent species. Zoo Biol 30:318–327, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Captive breeding for reintroduction: influence of management practices and biological factors on survival of captive kaki (black stilt)

An important component of the restoration strategy for the critically endangered kaki or black stilt (Himantopus novaezelandiae) is captive breeding for release. Since 1981 1,879 eggs were collected from wild and captive pairs, with birds laying up to four clutches. Eggs were incubated artificially and most chicks reared by hand until released as juveniles (about 60 days) or sub‐adults (9–10 months). Because survival in captivity is a significant determinant of the number of birds available for release, we wished to identify sources of variation in mortality to assess potential impacts of management on productivity. Hatchability was 78% for captive‐laid eggs and 91% for wild‐laid eggs. Survival of hatched eggs was 82% by 10 months of age for both wild and captive birds. Most egg mortality occurred early in incubation and around hatching: the timing of mortality was unaffected by whether birds were captive or wild, hybrid or pure kaki, or when eggs were laid. Heavier hatchlings showed higher initial survival, as did chicks from wild parents. Hatchlings from fourth‐laid eggs showed lowest survival, even though hatchling mass tended to increase with hatch order. Survival of chicks subjected to major health interventions was 69% after 4 months. No differences in survival were found between different genders, hybrids and pure kaki, hand‐reared or parent‐reared birds, chicks hatching early or late in the season, different seasons, different‐sized groups of chicks, chicks reared in different brooders, juveniles kept in different aviaries, and chicks from subsequent clutches. Birds subjected to minor health interventions were equally likely to survive as healthy chicks (82%). Survival was high despite aggressive management (quadruple clutching and collecting late in the season). Differences between captive and wild birds suggest further improvements could be made to captive diet. Wide variation in hatchability between parent pairs substantiates the practice of breaking up poorly performing pairs. Zoo Biol 0:1–16, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Captive breeding and reintroduction of the oriental pied hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris) in Khao Kheow Open Zoo,Thailand

This article discusses two related issues of the captive breeding and reintroduction of the Oriental pied hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris) in order to increase its population in the natural habitats. Oriental pied hornbills were bred in Khao Kheow Open Zoo. Three pairs were separated and kept in breeding cages. Females occupied artificial nests between February and April 2005–2007. Eggs were laid and incubated between February and March each year from 2005 to 2007. Nestlings hatched in late March and left the nest in late April 2005–2007. Each breeding pair was fed with approximately 400 g of food each day. All three pairs reproduced resulting in mature offspring of seven in 2005, six in 2006, and five in 2007. Four of sixteen 3‐year‐old birds were randomly selected and equipped with a GPS receiver on their backs. Activities of the birds attached and unattached with GPS were not significantly different. The first two birds (one female, one male with GPS) were reintroduced on August 5, 2006, and another nine birds (four birds with GPS) were reintroduced on December 26, 2006. The average home range of these reintroduced birds was 0.13 km². Their foods consisted of wild plants and animals in the home range. The first reintroduced pair was able to breed naturally by laying and hatching eggs in an artificial nest. Two juveniles left the nest in April 2008. These results indicate that both captive breeding and reintroduction are potentially important ways to increase the population of the Oriental pied hornbill in natural habitats. Zoo Biol 31:683‐693, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Differences in fecal particle size between free‐ranging and captive individuals of two browser species

Data from captive animals indicated that browsing (BR) ruminants have larger fecal particles—indicative of lesser chewing efficiency—than grazers (GR). To answer whether this reflects fundamental differences between the animal groups, or different reactions of basically similar organisms to diets fed in captivity, we compared mean fecal particle size (MPS) in a GR and a BR ruminant (aurox Bos primigenius taurus, giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis) and a GR and a BR hindgut fermenter (Przewalski's horse Equus ferus przewalskii, lowland tapir Tapirus terrestris), both from captivity and from the wild. As would be expected owing to a proportion of finely ground, pelleted feeds in captive diets, MPS was smaller in captive than free‐ranging GR. In contrast, MPS was drastically higher in captive than in free‐ranging BR of either digestion type. Thus, the difference in MPS between GR and BR was much more pronounced among captive than free‐ranging animals. The results indicate that BR teeth have adapted to their natural diet so that in the wild, they achieve a particle size reduction similar to that of GR. However, although GR teeth seem equally adapted to food ingested in captivity, the BR teeth seem less well suited to efficiently chew captive diets. In the case of ruminants, less efficient particle size reduction could contribute to potential clinical problems like “rumen blockage” and bezoar formation. Comparisons of MPS between free‐ranging and captive animals might offer indications for the physical suitability of zoo diets. Zoo Biol 27:70–77, 2008. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Assessing the effects of cognitive experiments on the welfare of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) by direct comparison of activity budget between wild and captive chimpanzees

We investigated the effects of cognitive experiments by direct comparison of activity budgets between wild and captive chimpanzees. One goal of captive management is to ensure that the activity budgets of captive animals are as similar as possible to those of their wild counterparts. However, such similarity has rarely been achieved. We compared the activity budget among three groups of chimpanzees: wild chimpanzees in Bossou (Guinea, n = 10), and captive chimpanzees who participated in cognitive experiments (experimental chimpanzees, n = 6) or did not participate in the experiments (nonexperimental chimpanzees, n = 6) at the Primate Research Institute (Japan). The experimental chimpanzees voluntarily participated in computer‐controlled cognitive tasks and small pieces of fruits were provided as rewards. The data from captivity were obtained on the experimental days (weekdays) and nonexperimental days (weekends). In both study sites, we followed each chimpanzee from about 7 a.m. until the time when chimpanzees started to rest in the evening. The behaviors were recorded every 1 min. The results showed that on weekdays, feeding time and resting time of the experimental chimpanzees were almost the same as those of wild chimpanzees. However, for the nonexperimental chimpanzees, feeding time was significantly shorter and resting time was longer than those of the wild chimpanzees. In contrast, no difference was found in feeding time or resting time of the two groups of captive chimpanzees on weekends. The results suggested that the cognitive experiments worked as an efficient method for food‐based enrichment. Am. J. Primatol. 73:1231–1238, 2011. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Skeletal development in Pan paniscus with comparisons to Pan troglodytes

Fusion of skeletal elements provides markers for timing of growth and is one component of a chimpanzee's physical development. Epiphyseal closure defines bone growth and signals a mature skeleton. Most of what we know about timing of development in chimpanzees derives from dental studies on Pan troglodytes. Much less is known about the sister species, Pan paniscus, with few in captivity and a wild range restricted to central Africa. Here, we report on the timing of skeletal fusion for female captive P. paniscus (n = 5) whose known ages range from 0.83 to age 11.68 years. Observations on the skeletons were made after the individuals were dissected and bones cleaned. Comparisons with 10 female captive P. troglodytes confirm a generally uniform pattern in the sequence of skeletal fusion in the two captive species. We also compared the P. paniscus to a sample of three unknown‐aged female wild P. paniscus, and 10 female wild P. troglodytes of known age from the Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. The sequence of teeth emergence to bone fusion is generally consistent between the two species, with slight variations in late juvenile and subadult stages. The direct‐age comparisons show that skeletal growth in captive P. paniscus is accelerated compared with both captive and wild P. troglodytes populations. The skeletal data combined with dental stages have implications for estimating the life stage of immature skeletal materials of wild P. paniscus and for more broadly comparing the skeletal growth rates among captive and wild chimpanzees (Pan), Homo sapiens, and fossil hominins. Am J Phys Anthropol 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Associations between adult spectral tarsiers

While anecdotal observations of gregarious behavior in nocturnal prosimian primates are common, most anthropologists continue to refer to them as solitary, perhaps based on the assumption that the occasional social interactions observed via ad libitum methods represent random chance encounters and not patterned social interactions. In this paper, I test the null hypothesis that nocturnal encounters between spectral tarsier (Tarsius spectrum) group members, outside of the sleeping tree, are the result of chance. Three male‐female pairs were radio‐collared and observed over a 4‐month period, using continuous focal animal sampling at the Tangkoko Nature Reserve (Sulawesi, Indonesia). Using Waser's random gas model, I found that spectral tarsiers spent more time in proximity to other group members than expected by chance, given the size of their home range and nightly path length. Adult group members spent 11% of the night in physical contact and an additional 17% of the night within a 10‐m radius of one another. Spectral tarsiers were also observed to significantly increase the amount of time spent foraging when located less than 10 m from another group member. Individuals foraging in proximity to another adult group member had lower insect capture rates compared to individuals who were not foraging in proximity to another adult group member. If living in a group is costly to these tarsiers' foraging efficiency, then why don't they actively avoid one another when foraging? One situation in which it might benefit tarsiers to be gregarious is high predation pressure. Preliminary results suggest that predation pressure by snakes may be the most likely factor selecting for the tarsiers to forage in proximity. Am J Phys Anthropol 128:74‐83, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Predicting release success of captive‐reared loggerhead shrikes (Lanius ludovicianus) using pre‐release behavior

We assessed whether behavioral markers could be used to evaluate pair compatibility and predict pair bond success of captive‐reared San Clemente loggerhead shrikes (Lanius ludovicianus mearnsi) released into the wild. Potential breeding pairs of shrikes were introduced at the Zoological Society of San Diego's captive‐breeding facility and then moved to release cages located in suitable but unoccupied habitat. Courting pairs were affected negatively by the disturbance of translocation to a new location and generally needed a few days to reinitiate pair bonding in the release enclosures. We separated and returned pairs to captivity when intra‐pair aggression or cessation of all courtship behavior occurred; all other pairs were released into the wild. The rate of nest approaches was the best marker to predict a successful release into the wild (i.e., pairs that remained near the release site and attempted to breed). Additionally, all experienced breeding pairs (i.e., pairs with males and females with prior captive breeding experience) exhibiting nesting behavior were successful, although previous experience alone does not ensure post‐release breeding. Results from this study indicate the importance of assessing behaviors of individuals paired for population augmentation. In using behavioral cues, identifying pairs with a low probability of success is possible, and replacing these pairs with individuals that have a higher likelihood of post‐release success can occur. This strategy will be important to efficiently restore imperiled populations of endangered species while working within temporal and financial constraints. Zoo Biol 0:1–12, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Body weight as an effective tool for determination of onset of puberty in captive female Nile hippopotami (Hippopotamus amphibious)

Profiles of fecal progestogens and body weight from the early juvenile to the peri‐pubertal period are presented for eight captive female Nile hippopotami housed at Disney's Animal Kingdom in Florida. Average growth rate in juveniles was 0.85±0.03 kg/day (r²=0.913). Progestogen elevations were detectable as early as 16.8 months of age, and elevations indicative of ovulation and luteal activity were identified in seven of eight females by 30.3±1.6 months of age and body weight of 829.3±49.4 kg. Progestogen patterns before the onset of puberty were highly variable within and between females. Some females remained at baseline concentrations, whereas in others the progestogen pattern was characterized by infrequent, transient elevations of low amplitude and shortened duration. Four females were monitored through onset of puberty, conception, and first pregnancy. Onset of puberty was defined as the first luteal phase from the series of consecutive ovarian cycles culminating in conception and was observed at 34.9±2.2 months of age and 963.6±39.4 kg, however, the quality and number of cycles varied among females before conception. Females conceived between 2.7–3.9 years of age after attaining an approximate threshold body weight of 1,000 kg (1,070.5±39.5 kg). The age at first conception in captivity occurs at a younger age than has been reported for wild populations. Body weight may be an effective tool for approximating the state of reproductive maturity and facilitate collection management in zoos. Zoo Biol. 0:1–13, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Successful care and propagation of the endangered amargosa vole (Microtus californicus scirpensis) in captivity

The Amargosa vole (Microtus californicus scirpensis) is a highlyendangered rodent endemic to a small stretch of the California portion of the Amargosa River basin in Inyo County's Mojave Desert. Although the Amargosa vole has survived in this naturally fragmented ecosystem for thousands of years, recent habitat degradation due to land development, water drainage, and marsh exploitation has further isolated the species and reduced its available habitat. As part of a conservation effort to preserve the species, a captive breeding population was established in 2014 to serve as an insurance colony and as a source of individuals to release into the wild as restored habitat becomes available. As this is the only captive colony for this species, there is little published information about appropriate care and husbandry for the Amargosa vole. Here we provide information about behavior, diet, reproduction, drug sensitivities, and diseases that affect successful captive care. We also provide recommendations for housing and disease management to preserve natural behaviors and defenses in captive‐born animals.     

Evaluation of the enteric microflora of captive whooping cranes (Grus americana) and sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis)

The enteric flora of captive whooping cranes (Grus americana) and sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis) has not been well described, despite its potential importance in the understanding of both the normal condition of the intestinal physiology of these animals and the altered colonization within disease states in these birds. Nineteen whooping cranes and 23 sandhill cranes housed currently at the Calgary Zoo or its affiliated Devonian Wildlife Conservation Centre (DWCC) in Calgary, Alberta were sampled from October 2004–February 2005 by collecting aerobic and anaerobic cloacal swabs from each bird. There were seven major groupings of bacteria isolated from both species of crane. Gram‐positive cocci, coliforms, and gram‐negative bacilli were the most prevalent types of bacteria isolated for both crane species, with Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, and Streptococcus Group D, not Enterococcus the bacterial species isolated most commonly. There was a significant difference in the average number of isolates per individual between the two crane species but no differences between age or gender categories within crane species. Campylobacter sp. were isolated from five whooping cranes. The potential zoonotic pathogen Campylobacter jejuni was isolated from one whooping crane and C. upsaliensis was isolated from a second. Three other isolates were unspeciated members of the Campylobacter genus and likely belong to a species undescribed previously. The evaluation of the enteric cloacal flora of whooping cranes and sandhill cranes illustrates that differences exist between these two closely related crane species, and highlights the potential implications these differences may have for current practices involving captive wildlife. Zoo Biol 0:1–13, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Iodine deficiency affects hatchability of endangered captive kaki (Black Stilt,Himantopus novaezelandiae)

A significant increase in hatching and late‐incubation deaths during two breeding seasons in a captive population of endangered black stilts (kaki, Himantopus novaezelandiae) prompted an investigation into the potential role of iodine deficiency. During the 1997 and 1998 breeding seasons, the survival rate of captive‐laid eggs during artificial incubation and hatching was lower than that of eggs laid by wild kaki, which were collected and incubated artificially in the same environment. Necropsy results revealed abnormalities in thyroid structure. These abnormalities had been occurring in captive birds since 1994, but they peaked in 1997 and 1998 at 30% and 81%, respectively, of all diagnosed necropsies. Necropsies of pied stilts, hybrids, and one kaki from the wild revealed no thyroid abnormalities. Gross morphological symptoms observed at hatching in chicks that died were consistent with those described for iodine deficiency in poultry. Serum levels of thyroxine (T4) were considerably higher in wild pied stilts and hybrid chicks than in captive adult, subadult, and kaki chicks. In five individuals from the captive population, serum levels increased after about 160 days of iodine supplementation and approached values in the wild. The constraints associated with working with such a critically endangered species (e.g., small sample size and an urgent need to effect changes) precluded the use of an experimental approach to determine the role iodine deficiency played in peri‐hatching deaths. However, we believe the evidence presented here strongly supports a case for the impact of iodine on survival within the captive population. Our experience also highlights the need for vigilance in captive programs with respect to potential dietary deficiencies when endangered species are raised in captivity for conservation purposes. Zoo Biol 23:1–13, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Population Genetics of the Washington National Primate Research Center's (WaNPRC) Captive Pigtailed Macaque (Macaca nemestrina) Population

Pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) provide an important model for biomedical research on human disease and for studying the evolution of primate behavior. The genetic structure of captive populations of pigtailed macaques is not as well described as that of captive rhesus (M. mulatta) or cynomolgus (M. fascicularis) macaques. The Washington National Primate Research Center houses the largest captive colony of pigtailed macaques located in several different housing facilities. Based on genotypes of 18 microsatellite (short tandem repeat [STR]) loci, these pigtailed macaques are more genetically diverse than captive rhesus macaques and exhibit relatively low levels of inbreeding. Colony genetic management facilitates the maintenance of genetic variability without compromising production goals of a breeding facility. The periodic introduction of new founders from specific sources to separate housing facilities at different times influenced the colony's genetic structure over time and space markedly but did not alter its genetic diversity significantly. Changes in genetic structure over time were predominantly due to the inclusion of animals from the Yerkes National Primate Research Center in the original colony and after 2005. Strategies to equalize founder representation in the colony have maximized the representation of the founders’ genomes in the extant population. Were exchange of animals among the facilities increased, further differentiation could be avoided. The use of highly differentiated animals may confound interpretations of phenotypic differences due to the inflation of the genetic contribution to phenotypic variance of heritable traits. Am. J. Primatol. 74:1017‐1027, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.