CHARACTERIZATION OF THE HUMAN ADENYLYL CYCLASE GENE FAMILY: cDNA,GENE STRUCTURE,AND TISSUE DISTRIBUTION OF THE NINE ISOFORMS

ABSTRACT

The membrane-bound adenylyl cyclases (ACs) represent one of the major families of effector enzymes for G protein-coupled receptors. Eight human AC isoforms, encoded by separate genes, have been identified up to now. However, in several cases only partial cDNA sequences are available (ADCY1,2,5). A ninth expected isoform, the human ortholog of rat ADCY4, has not been described yet. Using the high inter-species homology of mammalian AC isoforms, we searched the human genome and we succeeded to identify full-length coding sequences for all enzymes. Where required, missing sequence information was provided experimentally. Analysis of genomic sequences from the Celera database also allowed us to determine the exon–intron boundaries for ADCY1–9 and to establish the gene structures. We found that human AC genes comprise 11 to 26 exons, which are distributed over 16 to 430?kb. We further report expression profiles for the nine ACs in a panel of 16 human tissues and in human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells.     

Localization of the gene for a novel human adenylyl cyclase (ADCY7) to chromosome 16

A novel form of human adenylyl cyclase (ADCY7) has been discovered in the human erythroleukemia cell line (HEL). This cell line has been widely used as a model for studies of the characteristics of human platelets. Data from HEL cells suggests that ADCY7 may be the major AC form in human platelets. In the current study polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques coupled with use of human/rodent somatic hybrid panels and a yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) library were used to determine the chromosomal localization of the gene (adcy7) for ADCY7 enzyme. A 251-bp product from the 3 untranslated region of human adcy7 was amplified for PCR mapping and the results localize the adcy7 gene to region 16q12–16q13 of the human genome. The AC enzyme family is characterized by the presence of 12 membrane-spanning domains in its sequences, and this chromosomal region is known to contain other genes coding for proteins characterized by 12 membrane-spanning domains.     

Use of an in silico approach to define the gene structure of eukaryotic adenylyl cyclases.

The limited information available regarding the gene structure of adenylyl cyclases (AC), which catalyze the synthesis of cAMP, suggests a complex arrangement with many exons and large introns such that molecular techniques to define these gene structures are time- and labor-intensive. We report here the use of a computer-based approach involving the assembly of fragmented sequence data generated by the Human Genome Project and nucleic acid analysis software to decipher the gene structure of human and murine AC 6 and other human AC isoforms (ACs 3, 7, and 8). The results, which document 21 exons in human and murine AC 6, human AC 3, 18 exons in AC 8, and 24 exons in AC 7, show substantial conservation of exon organization in the AC family and in particular regions of the AC protein. Application of such in silico methods should prove useful to characterize genes for other ACs and protein families and data provided here should facilitate studies of polymorphisms in AC genes.     

Mapping of adenylyl cyclase genes type I,II, III,IV, V,and VI in mouse

The adenylyl cyclases (AC) act as second messengers in regulatory processes in the central nervous system. They might be involved in the pathophysiology of diseases, but their biological function is unknown, except for AC type I, which has been implicated in learning and memory. We previously mapped the gene encoding AC I to human Chromosome (Chr) 7p12. In this study we report the mapping of the adenylyl cyclase genes type I–VI to mouse chromosomes by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH): Adcy1 to Chr 11A2, Adcy2 to 13C1, Adcy3 to 12A-B, Adcy4 to 14D3, Adcy5 to 16B5, and Adcy6 to 15F. We also confirmed previously reported mapping results of the corresponding human loci ADCY2, ADCY3, ADCY5, and ADCY6 to human chromosomes and, in addition, determined the chromosomal location of ADCY4 to human Chr 14q11.2. The mapping data confirm known areas of conservation between mouse and human chromosomes.     

Physiological roles for G protein-regulated adenylyl cyclase isoforms: insights from knockout and overexpression studies

Cyclic AMP is a universal second messenger, produced by a family of adenylyl cyclase (AC) enzymes. The last three decades have brought a wealth of new information about the regulation of cyclic AMP production by ACs. Nine hormone-sensitive, membrane-bound AC isoforms have been identified in addition to a tenth isoform that lacks membrane spans and more closely resembles the cyanobacterial AC enzymes. New model systems for purifying and characterizing the catalytic domains of AC have led to the crystal structure of these domains and the mapping of numerous interaction sites. However, big hurdles remain in unraveling the roles of individual AC isoforms and their regulation in physiological systems. In this review we explore the latest on AC knockout and overexpression studies to better understand the roles of G protein regulation of ACs in the brain, olfactory bulb, and heart.     

Adenylyl cyclases in the digestive system

Adenylyl cyclases (ACs) are a group of widely distributed enzymes whose functions are very diverse. There are nine known transmembrane AC isoforms activated by Gαs. Each has its own pattern of expression in the digestive system and differential regulation of function by Ca^2 + and other intracellular signals. In addition to the transmembrane isoforms, one AC is soluble and exhibits distinct regulation. In this review, the basic structure, regulation and physiological roles of ACs in the digestive system are discussed.     

Cellular Localisation of Adenylyl Cyclase: A Post-genome Perspective

The intracellular messenger cAMP is essential for vital processes ranging from ovulation to cognition. There are 10 genes for adenylyl cyclase (AC), the biosynthetic enzyme of cAMP. Nine of these encode membrane-bound proteins and one gives rise to soluble AC. The understanding of the biological significance of this molecular diversity is incomplete. Membrane-bound ACs conform to the same structural blueprint but have markedly different regulatory characteristics. AC mRNAs are differentially distributed in the body suggesting non-redundant physiological functions. The subcellular localisation of AC isoforms has not been examined in detail. Here we discuss the current knowledge on the intracellular targeting of AC isoforms, and highlight the technical problems of AC detection, some of which appear to be caused by the poor quality-control of commercially supplied antibodies. The principal message is that intracellular targeting of ACs may be isoform-specific and also dependent on the cellular context of expression.Invocation: This paper was written to honour one of the founders of chemical neuroanatomy—Professor Miklós Palkovits on his 70th birthday.     

Novel short isoforms of adenylyl cyclase as negative regulators of cAMP production

Here, we cloned a new family of four adenylyl cyclase (AC) splice variants from interleukin-1β (IL-1β)-transdifferentiated vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) encoding short forms of AC8 that we have named “AC8E-H”. Using biosensor imaging and biochemical approaches, we showed that AC8E-H isoforms have no cyclase activity and act as dominant-negative regulators by forming heterodimers with other full-length ACs, impeding the traffic of functional units towards the plasma membrane. The existence of these dominant-negative isoforms may account for an unsuspected additional degree of cAMP signaling regulation. It also reconciles the induction of an AC in transdifferentiated VSMCs with the vasoprotective influence of cAMP. The generation of alternative splice variants of ACs may constitute a generalized strategy of adaptation to the cell's environment whose scope had so far been ignored in physiological and/or pathological contexts.     

Gsα stimulation of mammalian adenylate cyclases regulated by their hexahelical membrane anchors

Mammalian adenylate cyclases (ACs) are pseudoheterodimers with dissimilar hexahelical membrane-anchors, isoform-specifically conserved for more than half a billion years. We exchanged both membrane anchors of the AC isoform 2 by the quorum-sensing receptor from Vibrio harveyi, CqsS, which has a ligand, Cholera-Autoinducer-1 (CAI-1). In the chimera, AC activity was stimulated by Gsα, CAI-1 had no effect. Surprisingly, CAI-1 inhibited Gsα stimulation. We report that Gsα stimulation of human AC isoforms 2, 3, 5, and 9 expressed in Sf9 cells is inhibited by serum as is AC activity in membranes isolated from rat brain cortex. AC2 activation by forskolin or forskolin/Gsα was similarly inhibited. Obviously, serum contains as yet unidentified factors affecting AC activity. The data establish a linkage in ACs, in which the membrane anchors, as receptors, transduce extracellular signals to the cytosolic catalytic dimer. A mechanistic three state model of AC regulation is presented compatible with all known regulatory inputs into mammalian ACs. The data allow designating the membrane anchors of mammalian ACs as orphan receptors, and establish a new level of AC regulation.     

Insect Stage-Specific Receptor Adenylate Cyclases Are Localized to Distinct Subdomains of the Trypanosoma brucei Flagellar Membrane

Increasing evidence indicates that the Trypanosoma brucei flagellum (synonymous with cilium) plays important roles in host-parasite interactions. Several studies have identified virulence factors and signaling proteins in the flagellar membrane of bloodstream-stage T. brucei, but less is known about flagellar membrane proteins in procyclic, insect-stage parasites. Here we report on the identification of several receptor-type flagellar adenylate cyclases (ACs) that are specifically upregulated in procyclic T. brucei parasites. Identification of insect stage-specific ACs is novel, as previously studied ACs were constitutively expressed or confined to bloodstream-stage parasites. We show that procyclic stage-specific ACs are glycosylated, surface-exposed proteins that dimerize and possess catalytic activity. We used gene-specific tags to examine the distribution of individual AC isoforms. All ACs examined localized to the flagellum. Notably, however, while some ACs were distributed along the length of the flagellum, others specifically localized to the flagellum tip. These are the first transmembrane domain proteins to be localized specifically at the flagellum tip in T. brucei, emphasizing that the flagellum membrane is organized into specific subdomains. Deletion analysis reveals that C-terminal sequences are critical for targeting ACs to the flagellum, and sequence comparisons suggest that differential subflagellar localization might be specified by isoform-specific C termini. Our combined results suggest insect stage-specific roles for a subset of flagellar adenylate cyclases and support a microdomain model for flagellar cyclic AMP (cAMP) signaling in T. brucei. In this model, cAMP production is compartmentalized through differential localization of individual ACs, thereby allowing diverse cellular responses to be controlled by a common signaling molecule.     

Hydroxamate based inhibitors of adenylyl cyclase. Part 1: the effect of acyclic linkers on P-site binding

The adenylyl cyclases (ACs) are a family of enzymes that are key elements of signal transduction by virtue of their ability to convert ATP to cAMP. The catalytic mechanism of this transformation proceeds through initial binding of ATP to the purine binding site (P-site) followed by metal mediated cyclization with loss of pyrophosphate. Crystallographic analysis of ACs with known inhibitors reveals the presence of two metals in the active site. Presently, nine isoforms of adenylyl cyclase are known and unique isoform combinations are expressed in a tissue specific manner. The development of isoform specific inhibitors of adenylyl cyclase may prove to be a useful strategy toward the design of novel therapeutic agents. In order to develop novel AC inhibitors, we have chosen a design approach utilizing molecules with the adenine ring system joined to a metal-coordinating hydroxamic acid via flexible acyclic linkers. The designed inhibitors were assayed against type V AC with the size and heteroatom content of the linkers varied to probe the interaction of the nucleotide and metal binding sites within the enzyme.     

Adenylyl cyclase 3 mediates prostaglandin E(2)-induced growth inhibition in arterial smooth muscle cells.

Arterial smooth muscle cell (SMC) proliferation contributes to a number of vascular pathologies. Prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)), produced by the endothelium and by SMCs themselves, acts as a potent SMC growth inhibitor. The growth-inhibitory effects of PGE(2) are mediated through activation of G-protein-coupled membrane receptors, activation of adenylyl cyclases (ACs), formation of cAMP, and subsequent inhibition of mitogenic signal transduction pathways in SMCs. Of the 10 different mammalian AC isoforms known today, seven isoforms (AC2-7 and AC9) are expressed in SMCs from various species. We show that, despite the presence of several different AC isoforms, the principal AC isoform activated by PGE(2) in human arterial SMCs is a calmodulin kinase II-inhibited AC with characteristics similar to those of AC3. AC3 is expressed in isolated human arterial SMCs and in intact aorta. We further show that arterial SMCs isolated from AC3-deficient mice are resistant to PGE(2)-induced growth inhibition. In summary, AC3 is the principal AC isoform activated by PGE(2) in arterial SMCs, and AC3 mediates the growth-inhibitory effects of PGE(2). Because AC3 activity is inhibited by intracellular calcium through calmodulin kinase II, AC3 may serve as an important integrator of growth-inhibitory signals that stimulate cAMP formation and growth factors that increase intracellular calcium.     

Chromosomal localization and genomic organization for the galactose/ N-acetylgalactosamine/N-acetylglucosamine 6-O-sulfotransferase gene family

The galactose/N-acetylgalactosamine/N-acetylglucosamine 6-O-sulfotransferases (GSTs) are a family of Golgi-resident enzymes that transfer sulfate from 3'phosphoadenosine 5'phospho-sulfate to the 6-hydroxyl group of galactose, N-acetylgalactosamine, or N-acetylglucosamine in nascent glycoproteins. These sulfation modifications are functionally important in settings as diverse as cartilage structure and lymphocyte homing. To date six members of this gene family have been described in human and in mouse. We have determined the chromosomal localization of these genes as well as their genomic organization. While the broadly expressed enzymes implicated in proteoglycan biosynthesis are located on different chromosomes, the highly tissue specific enzymes GST-3 and 4 are encoded by genes located both in band q23.1--23.2 on chromosome 16. In the mouse, both genes reside in the syntenic region 8E1 on chromosome 8. This cross-species conserved clustering is suggestive of related functional roles for these genes. The human GST4 locus actually contains two highly similar open reading frames (ORF) that are 50 kb apart and encode two highly similar enzyme isoforms termed GST-4 alpha and GST-4 beta. All genes except GST0 (chondroitin 6-O-sulfotransferase) contain intron-less ORFs. With one exception these are fused directly to sequences encoding the 3' untranslated regions (UTR) of the respective mature mRNAs. The 5' UTRs of these mRNAs are usually encoded by a number of short exons 5' of the respective ORF. 5'UTRs of the same enzyme expressed in different cell types are sometimes derived from different exons located upstream of the ORF. The genomic organization of the GSTs resembles that of certain glycosyltransferase gene families.     

Detection of Merkel cell polyomavirus in cervical squamous cell carcinomas and adenocarcinomas from Japanese patients

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) was identified originally in Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), a rare form of human skin neuroendocrine carcinoma. Evidence of MCPyV existence in other forms of malignancy such as cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) is growing. Cervical cancers became the focus of our interest in searching for potentially MCPyV-related tumors because: (i) the major histological type of cervical cancer is the SCC; (ii) the uterine cervix is a common site of neuroendocrine carcinomas histologically similar to MCCs; and (iii) MCPyV might be transmitted during sexual interaction as demonstrated for human papillomavirus (HPV). In this study, we aimed to clarify the possible presence of MCPyV in cervical SCCs from Japanese patients. Cervical adenocarcinomas (ACs) were also studied. RESULTS: Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue samples from 48 cervical SCCs and 16 cervical ACs were examined for the presence of the MCPyV genome by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing analyses. PCR analysis revealed that 9/48 cervical SCCs (19 %) and 4/16 cervical ACs (25 %) were positive for MCPyV DNA. MCPyV-specific PCR products were sequenced to compare them with reference sequences. The nucleotide sequences in the MCPyV large-T (LT)-sequenced region were the same among MCPyV-positive cervical SCCs and AC. Conversely, in the MCPyV viral protein 1 (VP1)-sequenced, two cervical SCCs and three cervical ACs showed several nucleotide substitutions, of which three caused amino acid substitutions. These sequencing results suggested that three MCPyV variants of the VP1 were identified in our cases. Immunohistochemistry showed that the LT antigen was expressed in tumor cells in MCPyV-positive samples. Genotyping of human HPV in the MCPyV-positive samples revealed that infected HPVs were HPV types 16, 31 and 58 for SCCs and HPV types 16 and 18 for ACs. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides the first observation that MCPyV coexists in a subset of HPV-associated cervical cancers from Japanese patients. The prevalence of MCPyV in these lesions was close to that observed in the cutaneous SCCs. Further worldwide epidemiological surveys are warranted to determine the possible association of MCPyV with pathogenesis of cervical cancers.     

Regulation of adenylyl cyclase in the central nervous system

Adenylyl cyclases (ACs) are a family of enzymes that synthesize one of the major second messengers, cAMP, upon stimulation. Since the report of the first adenylyl cyclase (AC) gene in 1989, tremendous efforts have been devoted to identifying and characterizing more AC isozymes. In the past decade, significant knowledge regarding the basic structure, tissue distribution, and regulation of AC isozymes has been accumulated. Because members of the AC superfamily are tightly controlled by various signals, one of the most important impacts of these AC isozymes is their contribution to the complexity and fine-tuning of cellular signalling, especially in the central nervous system (CNS) where multiple signals constantly occur. This review focuses on recent progress toward understanding the physiological roles of ACs in the CNS.