African histoplasmosis: a review

African histoplasmosis caused by Histoplasma capsulatum var. duboisii is an important deep mycosis endemic in Central and West Africa and in the island of Madagascar. The disease is characterized by presence of granulomatous lesions in the skin, subcutaneous tissues and bones. Lungs and other internal organs are rarely involved. The natural reservoir of the etiological agent has only been recently discovered in a bat cave in Nigeria. The status of asymptomatic infection is not certain. Investigations on skin and serum reactivity have suggested frequent prevalence of asymptomatic infections due to H. capsulatum var. duboisii among the residents in the vicinity of the cave microfocus of the fungus. The exact portal of entry into the body is not known, but inhalation into the lungs and direct inoculation in the skin have been incriminated. Laboratory diagnosis is confirmed by in vitro conversion into large yeast forms (8-15 mum in diameter) and by the demonstration of these forms within giant cells of tissues of experimentally infected animals There are no major clean-cut physiological differences between the two varieties, viz. capsulatum and duboisii. The cell wall of H. capsulatum var duboisii contains a glucan with beta 1-4 linkages in addition to a galactomannan shared with H. capsulatum var. capsulatum. Like the var. capsulatum var. duboisii has marked proteinase and collagenase activities in both mycelial and yeast forms, suggesting a possible pathogenic role for these enzymes. Both varieties have a common exoantigen. The yeast form of H. capsulatum var. duboisii contains the antigen found in the serotype 1,4 of var. capsulatum. A monoclonal antibody test has been developed that can recognize some epitopes in H. capsulatum var. capsulatum but not in the var. duboisii. There is need to develop specific serological diagnosis for the disease. Also there should be greater international awareness about African histoplasmosis. Amphotericin B and several antimycotic azoles like ketoconazole, itraconazole and fluconazole have been successfully employed for treatment.     

Case of disseminated African histoplasmosis in a baboon

An adult red baboon (Papio cynocephalus papio) had a severe disseminated case of African histoplasmosis (Histoplasma capsulatum var. duboisii) with skin lesions from small pustules to ulcerative granulomas. Osteolytic lesions were seen radiographically. Treatment with ketoconazole for 6 months was unsuccessful.     

Experimental histoplasmosis in the baboon (Papio sp.)

Summary Ten male and female baboons were inoculated with saline suspensions ofHistoplasma capsulatum spores using the intratracheal, intravenous, and intraperitoneal routes. Skin testing, complement fixation, agar-gel diffusion, x-rays, as well as culture and histopathological sections of the internal tissues were used for determining the susceptibility of the baboon to histoplasmosis.No systemic histoplasmosis was established in any of the baboons, but preliminary infection was obtained by the three routes of inoculation. Two baboons inoculated intravenously showed a complete negative response to the pathogen.     

Gingival histoplasmosis: An atypical presentation of African histoplasmosis in three baboons (Papio spp)

Gingival lesions as the sole manifestation of African histoplasmosis (Histoplasma capsulatum var. duboisii) have never been reported in baboons. Grossly, lesions can be indistinguishable from bacterial ulcerative gingivitis or gingival hyperplasia. Clinical outcomes of primary gingival histoplasmosis in baboons are unknown and may complicate colony management decisions.     

Development and Use of a Polyvalent Conjugate to Differentiate Histoplasma capsulatum and Histoplasma duboisii from Other Pathogens

Previous investigations have demonstrated the existence of five Histoplasma capsulatum serotypes. Available specific fluorescent-antibody reagents stain only four of the five serotypes. Antibodies produced against the most complete H. capsulatum serotype were labeled with fluorescein isothiocyanate to develop a reagent specific for H. capsulatum that was reactive with all the known serotypes. The unadsorbed reagent not only stained all the H. capsulatum serotypes, but it also stained cultures of Blastomyces dermatitidis, H. duboisii, several Candida species, and a variety of other fungi. Adsorption of the conjugate with antigens of C. albicans produced a reagent that intensely stained only H. capsulatum, H. duboisii, and B. dermatitidis. Differentiation of B. dermatitidis from the Histoplasma species was accomplished by application of a B. dermatitidis specific fluorescent antibody to antigens positive with the H. capsulatum reagent. At present, differentiation of H. capsulatum from H. duboisii may be accomplished only by animal inoculation. Our data substantiate the antigenic relationships hypothesized earlier, and they indicate that H. capsulatum shares at least two antigens with the other fungi that were studied.     

Record review of baboons with histologically confirmed endometriosis in a large established colony

Spontaneous endometriosis was diagnosed in 43 baboons over a 14-year period. Thirty-seven have died; five remain alive; one was sold and lost to follow-up. The average age at diagnosis was 17.2 years; 29 (67%) were between 12 and 21 years of age. Fifteen (35%) were diagnosed by biopsy and received surgical excision of the endometriotic tissue; four of these were identified during caesarian section, confirming one prior report of endometriosis in pregnant animals. Twenty-eight (65%) were diagnosed at or shortly preceding necropsy. When diagnosed by a palpable abdominal mass, there was a significantly greater likelihood the animal died or was killed as a result of complications of endometriosis. When diagnosis was at necropsy, there was a significantly greater likelihood that the animal died from causes unrelated to endometriosis. Early identification with surgical removal appears to provide a benefit for both survival and delivering offspring after diagnosis. In twenty-one baboons (49%), endometriosis affected multiple sites within the peritoneal cavity. In the remaining baboons, lesions were more localized. Ovarian involvement was seen in sixteen (37%) of these baboons. This paper is the first to describe significant ovarian involvement in baboons, previously considered a limitation of the usefulness of this species as an animal model. We also describe the first reported endometriosis seeding of an abdominal surgery scar in a baboon. Many of these baboons were middle aged, had few or no offspring, or had evidence of a long duration of uninterrupted menstrual cycles, consistent with risk factors for women. Endometriosis was an incidental finding in 17 (40%) of these baboons, consistent with previous reports of minimal endometriosis as a common asymptomatic finding in baboons and in women. Overall, endometriosis in baboons presents a spontaneously occurring animal model that shares important features with the disease in women and the rhesus macaque.     

Histoplasmosis in the Republic of Congo dominated by African histoplasmosis,Histoplasma capsulatum var. duboisii

The Republic of Congo (RoC) is one of the African countries with the most histoplasmosis cases reported. This review summarizes the current status regarding epidemiology, diagnostic tools, and treatment of histoplasmosis in the RoC. A computerized search was performed from online databases Medline, PubMed, HINARI, and Google Scholar to collect literature on histoplasmosis in the RoC. We found 57 cases of histoplasmosis diagnosed between 1954 and 2019, corresponding to an incidence rate of 1–3 cases each year without significant impact of the AIDS epidemic in the country. Of the 57 cases, 54 (94.7%) were cases of Histoplasma capsulatum var. duboisii (Hcd) infection, African histoplasmosis. Three cases (5.3%) of Histoplasma capsulatum var. capsulatum infection were recorded, but all were acquired outside in the RoC. The patients’ ages ranged between 13 months to 60 years. An equal number of cases were observed in adults in the third or fourth decades (n = 14; 24.6%) and in children aged ≤15 years. Skin lesions (46.3%), lymph nodes (37%), and bone lesions (26%) were the most frequent clinical presentations. Most diagnoses were based on histopathology and distinctive large yeast forms seen in tissue. Amphotericin B (AmB) was first line therapy in 65% of the cases and itraconazole (25%) for maintenance therapy. The occurrence of African histoplasmosis in apparently normal children raises the possibility that African histoplasmosis is linked to environmental fungal exposure.     

Effect of nembutal on LH release in baboons.

Regularly cycling female baboons were selected and maintained under a diurnal light schedule from 0500 to 1900 hr (CST). Beginning three days prior to the expected LH peak, blood was collected daily at 0800 and 1600 hr for 6 days in 5 baboons under light sedation for radioimmunoassay of plasma LH and estrogen. The plasma level of LH increased linearly and reached a peak in the afternoon of the second day. The peak in plasma estrogen appeared prior to the LH peak. In order to examine the critical period of LH surge in baboons, nembutal was injected daily at 1300 hr beginning a few days prior to expected LH relase. Initial dose of nembutal was 35 mg/kg body weight, but a supplementary dose was later required for a full 5 hours of anesthesia. Blood was collected at 1600 hr from 4 baboons during nembutal injections and after cessation of nembutal injections for radioimmunoassay of plasma LH and estrogen. It was found that nembutal injections suppressed LH release in 2 baboons, and caused a delay of LH release in 2 baboons. However, the plasma level of estrogen declined immediately after initiation of nembutal injection and remained lower. The evidence illustrates the nature of the neural components of LH release which became effective in the afternoon during the ovulatory phase. In addition, a linear increase in plasma level of LH, which is due to accumulation of circulating LH, is necessary for induction of ovulation in baboons.     

Inbreeding,heterozygosity, and lymphoma risk among the baboons (Papio hamadryas) of Sukhumi,USSR

This paper describes the spread of lymphoma through a baboon (Papio hamadryas) colony in the Institute of Experimental Pathology and Therapy at Sukhumi, USSR. In the late 1960s, Soviet scientists inoculated 12 baboons with cells from hospitalized human leukemia patients, causing the death of a total of 135 animals between 1967 and 1978. The death rate from lymphoma averages almost 12 baboons per year in the Sukhumi colony. Genetic investigations of these baboons revealed the following: 1) Six blood protein markers out of 16 systems (38%) tested were polymorphic; 2) the average inbreeding coefficient for the entire colony (N = 1,226) was 0.027 (exclusion of baboons with F values equal to 0.0 raised the mean inbreeding coefficient to 0.096); 3) no relationship between inbreeding and risk of lymphoma was noted; and 4) there was an apparent association between both PGM loci and the incidence of lymphoma at the 0.005 levels of significance. This association was further supported by the significantly lower incidence of PGM2 (2-1) genotype in baboons with high anti-VCA-HVP titers.     

Distribution and Habitat Associations of Baboons (Papio hamadryas) in Central Eritrea

At least three diurnal primate taxa are still present in Eritrea, NE Africa: hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas hamadryas), olive baboons (Papio h. anubis) and grivet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops aethiops). However, information on status and distribution of primates and their habitats in Eritrea is outdated and incomplete. We conducted a primate survey, focussing on hamadryas baboons, to obtain data which will be integrated in a national wildlife management and conservation plan in Eritrea. We obtained information about the geographical distribution and abundance of baboons, their altitudinal range, habitat quality of their home-ranges, aggregation sizes at sleeping cliffs and predator presence. We described habitat quality via the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), a vegetation classification of Landsat MSS satellite data. Hamadryas and olive baboons are still present in Eritrea in ample numbers. Their geographical distributions in 1997 and 1998 did not deviate significantly from their historical distributions. An estimated 15,000 Papio hamadryas hamadryas lived in the 25,000-km² area of survey (0.58 baboons/km²). Population densities of hamadryas baboons in many parts of the survey area are higher than at Kummer's (1968) study site in Ethiopia. Hamadryas baboons live at all altitudes in four of five ecogeographical zones of Eritrea. Olive baboons replaced them in the western lowlands. Both baboon taxa tend to select better quality habitats, characterized by a higher normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) than the average for the respective ecogeographical zones. Hamadryas baboons show a greater ecological plasticity than olive baboons, which are confined to riverbeds with extended gallery forest. By the end of 1999, a hybrid zone could not be confirmed.     

Human infants and baboons show the same pattern of handedness for a communicative gesture

To test the role of gestures in the origin of language, we studied hand preferences for grasping or pointing to objects at several spatial positions in human infants and adult baboons. If the roots of language are indeed in gestural communication, we expect that human infants and baboons will present a comparable difference in their pattern of laterality according to task: both should be more right-hand/left-hemisphere specialized when communicating by pointing than when simply grasping objects. Our study is the first to test both human infants and baboons on the same communicative task. Our results show remarkable convergence in the distribution of the two species' hand biases on the two kinds of tasks: In both human infants and baboons, right-hand preference was significantly stronger for the communicative task than for grasping objects. Our findings support the hypothesis that left-lateralized language may be derived from a gestural communication system that was present in the common ancestor of baboons and humans.     

Life history of hamadryas baboons: Physical development,infant mortality,reproductive parameters and family relationships

Demographic and life history parameters were estimated for a band of free-ranging hamadryas baboons, observed for 5.5 years in Ethiopia. Age-related changes in body weight and dentition were found to be delayed relative to laboratory-reared baboons. On the average, females reached menarche at 4.3 years of age and had their first infant at the age of 6.1 years. The mean interbirth interval was 24 months if the infant survived this period. The survival of infants and juveniles was higher compared to Amboseli yellow baboons, but somewhat lower than in gelada baboons in the Simen Mountains. Males acquired their first juvenile or adult female at the age of 8.5 to 11 years. Male-female pair-bonds lasted several years in most cases. The Cone Rock baboons were organized in a four-level social structure. The troop could split into bands, bands were divided into clans, and clans into one-male units with bachelor followers. The exchange of individuals between social units predominantly occurred within the band. All males of known origin became adult members of their presumed natal clan. Most females transferred also within clans, and juvenile females tended to remain in their natal clan. Females lost by one male to several rivals tended to reassemble in the same new one-male units later on.     

Comparative transmission of multiple herpesviruses and simian virus 40 in a baboon breeding colony

Little is known about the natural history of herpesviruses indigenous in baboons. Here, we describe the development of ELISAs for five herpesviruses. These assays were used to test more than 950 serum samples collected from approximately 210 infant/juvenile and 130 adult baboons in a captive breeding colony over a period of seven years. Results indicated that baboon cytomegalovirus, lymphocryptovirus, and rhadinovirus are transmitted efficiently within the colony and are acquired at an early age. Baboon alpha-herpesvirus HVP2 and polyomavirus simian virus 40 (SV40) were acquired later and by fewer juveniles than were the other three herpesviruses. More than 60% of baboons acquired HVP2 before reaching sexual maturity, indicating that oral infection of infants and juveniles, rather than sexual transmission between adults, is the predominant mode of transmission for this virus. Antibody to simian varicella virus (SVV) was found in about 40% of baboons. SVV was acquired principally by infants and juveniles; few adults seroconverted despite seronegative adults being in constant contact with infants and juveniles undergoing primary infection. Time of seroconversion was not statistically correlated to specific individual herpesviruses, suggesting that each virus is acquired as an independent infection event rather than multiple viruses being acquired at the same time. Several baboons that were delivered by cesarean section and were housed separate from, but in close proximity to, other baboons remained free of many or all viruses for several years, suggesting that, similar to human herpesviruses, baboon herpesviruses and SV40 are transmitted principally by direct contact.     

Parturition in a feral baboon (Papio anubis)

During a study of feral baboons at the Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania, the premature birth of a dead, breechborn infant was observed and photographed. The placenta was immediately eaten and the dead infant carried by the mother for two days. The birth itself attracted little attention from other troop members, but the dead infant was investigated by several baboons, especially three females who had recently become dominant to the mother in a fight.     

Spontaneous pancreatic islet amyloidosis in 40 baboons

Spontaneous amyloidosis occurs in many nonhuman primate species but remains difficult to diagnose and treat. Nonhuman primates continue to offer promise as animal models in which to study amyloidosis in humans. Amyloidosis was not diagnosed clinically but was found histologically in four male and 36 female baboons. The baboons averaged 18 years of age at death (range, 7-28 years). Clinical signs, if present, were hyperglycemia and cachexia. Blood glucose values were elevated in 12 of 30 baboons with available clinical pathology data. Four baboons had been clinically diagnosed as diabetic and three were treated with insulin. Amyloid was found in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas in 40 baboons; 35 baboons had amyloid only in the islets of Langerhans. Amyloid was found in nonislet tissue of baboons as follows: five, nonislet pancreas; four, intestine and adrenal; three, kidney; two, prostate and spleen; and one each, lymph node, liver, gall bladder, stomach, tongue, urinary bladder, and salivary gland. Sections of paraffin-embedded tissues were evaluated for amyloid with hematoxylin and eosin (HE) and congo red (CR) staining, and using immunohistochemistry for human islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), glucagon, pancreatic polypeptide (PP), somatostatin (SS), and porcine insulin. Islet amyloid was positive with HE in 40 baboons, with CR in 39 baboons, and with IAPP and CGRP in 35 baboons. IAPP and CGRP only stained islet amyloid. PP, SS, glucagon, and porcine insulin did not stain amyloid. Islet amyloidosis in the baboon appears to be difficult to diagnose clinically, age-related, and similar to islet amyloidosis in other species. The baboon may be a good model for the study of islet amyloidosis in humans.     

Body composition in baboons: Evaluating a morphometric method

The objective of this study was to determine whether noninvasive morphometric measurements of olive baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis) can reliably predict lean body mass and fat mass in this species. Crown-rump length, triceps circumference, and skinfold measures at the neck, subscapular, suprailiac, and triceps sites were obtained prior to necropsy from 21 clinically normal infant baboons at 18 weeks of age and from 22 clinically normal adolescent baboons at 5 years of age. At necropsy, the lean body mass and body fat mass were measured using gravimetric methods. Pearson's correlations and regression analysis were used to test the relationship between direct measures of lean and fat mass obtained at necropsy with calculated estimates based on morphometric measures obtained prior to death. Our null hypothesis was that the morphometric measures (individually or in combination) were not related to direct measures of fat mass or lean mass. Non-linear and multiple regression estimators, by age and gender, were derived and provided increased predictability. Our results indicate that (1) morphometric measures can accurately predict lean body mass in male and female baboons; (2) morphometric measures used to predict lean body mass change with age; (3) morphometric measures are strongly associated with body fat mass at 18 weeks of age but are not as strongly associated with body fat mass in 5-year-old baboons; (4) triceps circumference provides the best single indicator of lean body mass for both genders and age periods; (5) baboons are like humans in that adolescent females tend to accumulate body fat while males of the same age tend to develop lean mass; and (6) combinations of these morphometric measurements explain between 70% and 100% of the variability and can be used to estimate lean and fat mass in baboons.     

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone release from the mediobasal hypothalamus of fetal baboons

Pulsatile luteinizing-hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) secretion was measured from the mediobasal-suprachiasmatic-preoptic (MBH-SCN-POA) region of the hypothalamus from fetal baboons (Papio anubis) at midgestation (day 100; term = day 184). The entire MBH-SCN-POA (48 ± 5 mg) was obtained between 1100 and 1200 hours and was immediately placed in icecold phosphate buffer (pH 7.4). The MBH-SCN-POA units were halved at the midline and superfused in parallel at 37.5°C for 5 hours. Then 500 μl of superfusate was collected at 10-minute intervals, and LHRH concentration was measured by radioimmunoassay using the Chen-Ramirez antibody. In fetuses of untreated baboons (N = 3), LHRH pulse amplitude (mean ± SE) was 16.0 ± 4.2 pg, with a period of 30 ± 1 minute; the average 10-minute output of LHRH was 9.4 ± 2.0 pg. In fetal baboons in which the hormonal milieu in the mother was modulated by androstenedione treatment of midpregnancy (N = 3), average LHRH pulse amplitude was 1.7 ± 0.3 pg, with a period of 33.5 ± 4.9 minutes; the average 10-minute output of LHRH was 1.2 ± 0.2 pg. Collectively, these data suggest that as early as midgestation, fetal baboons secrete LHRH in vitro in a pulsatile fashion and with a periodicity of 30–35 minutes. In addition, the decrease in LHRH pulse amplitude and the average 10-minute LHRH output (P < .01, P < .05) in tissue from fetal baboons of mothers in which the normal pattern of steroidogenesis is altered suggest that the output of LHRH systems in the fetus is sensitive to changes in the maternal hormonal milieu.     

Fibrinopeptides A and B of baboons (Papio anubis, Papio hamadryas, and Theropithecus gelada): their amino acid sequences and evolutionary rates and a molecular phylogeny for the baboons

Amino acid sequences of fibrinopeptides A and B from savanna baboons, Papio anubis and Papio hamadryas, and highland baboon, Theropithecus gelada, were established. The sequences of the fibrinopeptides A from the three baboons were identical: (sequence: see text) The fibrinopeptides B were composed of 9 residues and demonstrated the sequence: (sequence see text) where X3 = Arg in P. anubis, His in P. hamadryas, and Gly in Th. gelada. Position-3 of the B peptides was the only replacement site observed among the 25 amino acid residues in both fibrinopeptides from the baboons. Based on these sequences, a molecular phylogeny for the three species of baboons was deduced. The evolutionary rates of the peptides B of the baboons and macaques were also estimated. It was observed that the fibrinopeptides changed at an uneven rate during the evolution of old-world monkeys, i.e., baboons and macaques.     

Teeth emergence in wild olive baboons in Kenya and formulation of a dental schedule for aging wild baboon populations

Teeth emergence schedules are presented from analysis of 95 wild olive baboons Papio anubis (age range 2–120 months) and compared to recently published results for wild and captive yellow baboons (P. cynocephalus; Phillips-Conroy and Jolly: American Journal of Primatology 15:17–29, 1988). Age at emergence of M1 (20.5 months males, 19.5 months females), I1 (32.5 and 33.5 months) and I2 (40.0 and 39 months) of olive baboons was earlier than in the wild yellow baboons and similar to captive yellow baboons. However, the later emerging teeth were delayed considerably relative to the captive animals and were similar in age of emergence to those of wild yellow baboons. Considerable variation in age of emergence occurred in the later emerging teeth especially among males. Regression analysis of dental scores with age demonstrated differences between olive baboons and captive yellow baboons but not between olive baboons and wild yellow baboons. Combined data on dental scores for wild yellow, olive, and hamadryas baboons provide schedules of AGE (months) = {SCORE – 11.79} ÷ 0.4405 and AGE (months) = {SCORE – 11.24} ÷ 0.4797 for males and females, respectively, which may be used for aging wild baboons. Full permanent dentition in wild baboons is predicted to occur over 1 year later than in captive animals.