Leishmania amazonensis: Anionic currents expressed in oocytes upon microinjection of mRNA from the parasite

Transport mechanisms involved in pH homeostasis are relevant for the survival of Leishmania parasites. The presence of chloride conductive pathways in Leishmania has been anticipated since anion channel inhibitors limit the proton extrusion mediated by the H+ATPase, which is the major regulator of intracellular pH in amastigotes. In this study, we used Xenopus laevis oocytes as a heterologous expression system in which to study the expression of ion channels upon microinjection of polyA mRNA from Leishmania amazonensis. After injection of polyA mRNA into the oocytes, we measured three different types of currents. We discuss the possible origin of each, and propose that Type 3 currents could be the result of the heterologous expression of proteins from Leishmania since they show different pharmacological and biophysical properties as compared to endogenous oocyte currents.     

Influenza virus M2 protein has ion channel activity.

The influenza virus M2 protein was expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes and shown to have an associated ion channel activity selective for monovalent ions. The anti-influenza virus drug amantadine hydrochloride significantly attenuated the inward current induced by hyperpolarization of oocyte membranes. Mutations in the M2 membrane-spanning domain that confer viral resistance to amantadine produced currents that were resistant to the drug. Analysis of the currents of these altered M2 proteins suggests that the channel pore is formed by the transmembrane domain of the M2 protein. The wild-type M2 channel was found to be regulated by pH. The wild-type M2 ion channel activity is proposed to have a pivotal role in the biology of influenza virus infection.     

Expression of Native GABAA Receptors in Xenopus Oocytes Injected With Rat Brain Synaptosomes

Abstract: Oocytes from the frog Xenopus laevis were shown recently to express native nicotinic acetylcholine receptors after injection with purified Torpedo electroplaque membrane vesicles. Injection of Xenopus oocytes with rat cortical or nigral synaptosomes has now been shown to result in the expression of γ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABA_A) receptor-mediated Cl⁻ currents. Electrophysiological characterization of the responses of these receptors to GABA and other agents revealed that they were incorporated into the oocyte membrane and that they retained their original pharmacological properties, such as sensitivity to Cl⁻ channel blockers, benzodiazepines, and general anesthetics. These results suggest that this approach to the expression of heterologous proteins in Xenopus oocytes may facilitate the study of native synaptic proteins derived from brain tissue.     

Electrophysiological analysis of cloned cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels

Electrophysiological studies were conducted on the cloned plant cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels AtCNGC2 and AtCNGC1 from Arabidopsis, and NtCBP4 from tobacco (Nicotiana tobacum). The nucleotide coding sequences for these proteins were expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes or HEK 293 cells. Channel characteristics were evaluated using voltage clamp analysis of currents in the presence of cAMP. AtCNGC2 was demonstrated to conduct K(+) and other monovalent cations, but exclude Na(+); this conductivity profile is unique for any ion channel not possessing the amino acid sequence found in the selectivity filter of K(+)-selective ion channels. Application of cAMP evoked currents in membrane patches of oocytes injected with AtCNGC2 cRNA. Direct activation of the channel by cyclic nucleotide, demonstrated by application of cyclic nucleotide to patches of membranes expressing such channels, is a hallmark characteristic of this ion channel family. Voltage clamp studies (two-electrode configuration) demonstrated that AtCNGC1 and NtCBP4 are also cyclic nucleotide-gated channels. Addition of a lipophilic analog of cAMP to the perfusion bath of oocytes injected with NtCBP4 and AtCNGC1 cRNAs induced inward rectified, noninactivating K(+) currents.     

Cloning and first functional characterization of a plant cyclic nucleotide-gated cation channel

Cyclic nucleotide-gated (cng) non-selective cation channels have been cloned from a number of animal systems. These channels are characterized by direct gating upon cAMP or cGMP binding to the intracellular portion of the channel protein, which leads to an increase in channel conductance. Animal cng channels are involved in signal transduction systems; they translate stimulus-induced changes in cytosolic cyclic nucleotide into altered cell membrane potential and/or cation flux as part of a signal cascade pathway. Putative plant homologs of animal cng channels have been identified. However, functional characterization (i.e. demonstration of cyclic-nucleotide-dependent ion currents) of a plant cng channel has not yet been accomplished. We report the cloning and first functional characterization of a plant member of this family of ion channels. The Arabidopsis cDNA AtCNGC2 encodes a polypeptide with deduced homology to the alpha-subunit of animal channels, and facilitates cyclic nucleotide-dependent cation currents upon expression in a number of heterologous systems. AtCNGC2 expression in a yeast mutant lacking a low-affinity K(+) uptake system complements growth inhibition only when lipophilic cyclic nucleotides are present in the culture medium. Voltage clamp analysis indicates that Xenopus laevis oocytes injected with AtCNGC2 cRNA demonstrate cyclic-nucleotide-dependent, inward-rectifying K(+) currents. Human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293) transfected with AtCNGC2 cDNA demonstrate increased permeability to Ca(2+) only in the presence of lipophilic cyclic nucleotides. The evidence presented here supports the functional classification of AtCNGC2 as a cyclic-nucleotide-gated cation channel, and presents the first direct evidence (to our knowledge) identifying a plant member of this ion channel family.     

Progesterone treatment abolishes exogenously expressed ionic currents in Xenopus oocytes

Fully grown oocytes of Xenopus laevis undergo resumption of the meiotic cycle when treated with the steroid hormone progesterone. Previous studies have shown that meiotic maturation results in profound downregulation of specific endogenous membrane proteins in oocytes. To determine whether the maturation impacts the functional properties of exogenously expressed membrane proteins, we used cut-open recordings from Xenopus oocytes expressing several types of Na(+) and K(+) channels. Treatment of oocytes with progesterone resulted in a downregulation of heterologously expressed Na(+) and K(+) channels without a change in the kinetics of the currents. The time course of progesterone-induced ion channel inhibition was concentration dependent. Complete elimination of Na(+) currents temporally coincided with development of germinal vesicle breakdown, while elimination of K(+) currents was delayed by approximately 2 h. Coexpression of human beta(1)-subunit with rat skeletal muscle alpha-subunit in Xenopus oocytes did not prevent progesterone-induced downregulation of Na(+) channels. Addition of 8-bromo-cAMP to oocytes or injection of heparin before progesterone treatment prevented the loss of expressed currents. Pharmacological studies suggest that the inhibitory effects of progesterone on expressed Na(+) and K(+) channels occur downstream of the activation of cdc2 kinase. The loss of channels is correlated with a reduction in Na(+) channel immunofluorescence, pointing to a disappearance of the ion channel-forming proteins from the surface membrane.     

Hypotonicity activates a native chloride current in Xenopus oocytes

Xenopus oocytes are frequently utilized for in vivo expression of cellular proteins, especially ion channel proteins. A thorough understanding of the endogenous conductances and their regulation is paramount for proper characterization of expressed channel proteins. Here we detail a novel chloride current (ICl.swell) responsive to hypotonicity in Xenopus oocytes using the two-electrode voltage clamp technique. Reducing the extracellular osmolarity by 50% elicited a calcium-independent chloride current having an anion conductivity sequence identical with swelling-induced chloride currents observed in epithelial cells. The hypotonicity-activated current was blocked by chloride channel blockers, trivalent lanthanides, and nucleotides. G- protein, cAMP-PKA, and arachidonic acid signaling cascades were not involved in ICl.swell activation. ICl.swell is distinct from both stretch-activated nonselective cation channels and the calcium- activated chloride current in oocytes and may play a critical role in volume regulation in Xenopus oocytes.     

Dual-function vector for protein expression in both mammalian cells and Xenopus laevis oocytes

Both Xenopus laevis oocytes and mammalian cells are widely used for heterologous expression of several classes of proteins, and membrane proteins especially, such as ion channels or receptors, have been extensively investigated in both cell types. A full characterization of a specific protein will often engage both oocytes and mammalian cells. Efficient expression of a protein in both systems have thus far only been possible by subcloning the cDNA into two different vectors because several different molecular requirements should be fulfilled to obtain a high protein level in both mammalian cells and oocytes. To address this problem, we have constructed a plasmid vector, pXOOM, that can function as a template for expression in both oocytes and mammalian cells. By including all the necessary RNA stability elements for oocyte expression in a standard mammalian expression vector, we have obtained a dual-function vector capable of supporting protein production in both Xenopus oocytes and CHO-K1 cells at an expression level equivalent to the levels obtained with vectors optimized for either oocyte or mammalian expression. Our functional studies have been performed with hERGI, KCNQ4, and Kv1.3 potassium channels.     

Stretch-independent activation of the mechanosensitive cation channel in oocytes of Xenopus laevis

Oocytes of the South African clawed toad Xenopus laevis possess in their plasma membrane a so-called stretch-activated cation channel (SAC) which is activated by gently applying positive or negative pressure (stretch) to the membrane patch containing the channels. We show here that this mechanosensitive channel acted as a spontaneously opening, stretch-independent non-selective cation channel (NSCC) in more than half of the oocytes that we investigated. In 55% of cell-attached patches (total number of patches, 58) on 30 oocytes from several different donors, we found NSCC opening events. These currents were increased by elevating the membrane voltage or raising the temperature. NSCC and SAC currents shared some properties regarding the relative conductances of Na+>Li+>Ca2+, gating behaviour and amiloride sensitivity. Stretch-independent currents could be clearly distinguished from stretch induced SAC currents by their voltage and temperature dependence. Open events of NSCC increased strongly when temperature was raised from 21 to 27 degrees C. NSCC currents could be partly inhibited by high concentrations of extracellular Gd3+ and amiloride (100 and 500 microM, respectively). We further show exemplarily that NSCC can seriously hamper investigations when oocytes are used for the expression of foreign ion channels. In particular, NSCC complicated investigations on cation channels with small conductance as we demonstrate for a 4 pS epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC) from guinea pig distal colon. Our studies on NSCCs suggest the involvement of these channels in oocyte temperature response and ion transport regulation. From our results we suggest that NSCC and SAC currents are carried by one protein operating in different modes.     

Functional interaction between CFTR and the sodium-phosphate co-transport type 2a in Xenopus laevis oocytes

BACKGROUND: A growing number of proteins, including ion transporters, have been shown to interact with Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane conductance Regulator (CFTR). CFTR is an epithelial chloride channel that is involved in Cystic Fibrosis (CF) when mutated; thus a better knowledge of its functional interactome may help to understand the pathophysiology of this complex disease. In the present study, we investigated if CFTR and the sodium-phosphate co-transporter type 2a (NPT2a) functionally interact after heterologous expression of both proteins in Xenopus laevis oocytes. METHODOLOGY/FINDINGS: NPT2a was expressed alone or in combination with CFTR in X. laevis oocytes. Using the two-electrode voltage-clamp technique, the inorganic phosphate-induced current (IPi) was measured and taken as an index of NPT2a activity. The maximal IPi for NPT2a substrates was reduced when CFTR was co-expressed with NPT2a, suggesting a decrease in its expression at the oolemna. This was consistent with Western blot analysis showing reduced NPT2a plasma membrane expression in oocytes co-expressing both proteins, whereas NPT2a protein level in total cell lysate was the same in NPT2a- and NPT2a+CFTR-oocytes. In NPT2a+CFTR- but not in NPT2a-oocytes, IPi and NPT2a surface expression were increased upon PKA stimulation, whereas stimulation of Exchange Protein directly Activated by cAMP (EPAC) had no effect. When NPT2a-oocytes were injected with NEG2, a short amino-acid sequence from the CFTR regulatory domain that regulates PKA-dependent CFTR trafficking to the plasma membrane, IPi values and NPT2a membrane expression were diminished, and could be enhanced by PKA stimulation, thereby mimicking the effects of CFTR co-expression. CONCLUSION/PERSPECTIVES: We conclude that when both CFTR and NPT2a are expressed in X. laevis oocytes, CFTR confers to NPT2a a cAMPi-dependent trafficking to the membrane. This functional interaction raises the hypothesis that CFTR may play a role in phosphate homeostasis.     

Membrane currents in the oocyte of the toad Bufo arenarum

The amphibian oocyte cell model is widely used for heterologous expression of ionic channels and receptors. Little is known, however, about the physiology of oocyte cell models other than Xenopus laevis. In this study, the two-electrode voltage clamp technique was used to assess the most common electrical patterns of oocytes of the South American toad Bufo arenarum. Basal membrane resistance, resting potential, and ionic currents were determined in this cell model. The oocyte transmembrane resistance was 0.35 M(Omega), and the resting potential in normal saline was about -33 mV with a range between -20 mV and -50 mV. This is, to our knowledge, the first attempt to begin an understanding of the ion transport mechanisms of Bufo arenarum oocytes. This cell model may provide a viable alternative to the expression of ion channels, in particular those endogenously observed in Xenopus laevis oocytes.     

Two-microelectrode voltage clamp of Xenopus oocytes: voltage errors and compensation for local current flow.

Oocytes from Xenopus laevis are commonly used as an expression system for ion channel proteins. The most common method for their electrophysiological investigation is the two-microelectrode voltage clamp technique. The quality of voltage clamp recordings obtained with this technique is poor when membrane currents are large and when rapid charging of the membrane is desired. Detailed mathematical modeling of the experimental setup shows that the reasons for this weak performance are the electrical properties of the oocytes and the geometry of the setup. We measured the cytosolic conductivity to be approximately 5 times lower than that of the typical bath solution, and the specific membrane capacitance to be approximately 6 times higher than that of a simple lipid bilayer. The diameter of oocytes is typically approximately 1 mm, whereas the penetration depth of the microelectrodes is limited to approximately 100 microm. This eccentric current injection, in combination with the large time constants caused by the low conductivity and the high capacitance, yields large deviations from isopotentiality that decay slowly with time constants of up to 150 micros. The inhomogeneity of the membrane potential can be greatly reduced by introducing an additional, extracellular current-passing electrode. The geometrical and electrical parameters of the setup are optimized and initial experiments show that this method should allow for faster and more uniform control of membrane potential.     

Analysis of the posttranslational modifications of the influenza virus M2 protein.

The sites of posttranslational modifications of the influenza A virus M2 protein were examined, and the effect of these modifications on the M2 protein ion channel activity was analyzed. Cysteine residues 17 and 19 in the M2 protein ectodomain form disulfide bonds. The cytoplasmic tail is posttranslationally modified by palmitoylation, and mutagenic studies support the view that cysteine residue 50 is the site for fatty acylation. In addition, the cytoplasmic tail of the M2 protein was found to be posttranslationally modified by the addition of phosphate to specific serine residues. Site-directed mutagenesis of serine residues in the M2 protein cytoplasmic tail, combined with phosphoamino acid analysis, indicated that serine residue 64 is the predominant site for phosphorylation but that serine residues 82, 89, and 93 were also phosphorylated but to much lesser extents. Disulfide-bond formation, palmitoylation, and phosphorylation occurred on M2 protein expressed in mammalian cells infected with influenza virus, in mammalian cells in which the M2 protein was expressed from DNA expression vectors, and when the M2 protein was expressed in oocytes of Xenopus laevis. The membrane currents of oocytes of Xenopus laevis expressing wild-type and site-specifically altered forms of the M2 protein, to ablate posttranslational modifications, indicated that none of the posttranslational modifications significantly affected the ion channel activity of the M2 protein in oocytes. Therefore, these data do not indicate a functional role for posttranslational modifications of the M2 protein in its ion channel activity.     

Characteristics of P2X7 receptors from human B lymphocytes expressed in Xenopus oocytes

Human B lymphocytes express an ATP-gated ion channel (P2Z receptor), which shares similarities with the recently identified P2X7 receptor. Using gene specific primers, we have now isolated P2X7 cDNA from the total RNA of human B lymphocytes. This hP2X7 receptor subtype was expressed in Xenopus oocytes and electrophysiologically characterized. The hP2X7 receptor is similar to, but does not completely match, P2Z of human B cells. The hP2X7 receptors resemble the P2Z receptors with regard to the ATP concentration of half maximal activation, reproducibility, permeation characteristics and lack of desensitization of the ATP-evoked currents. However, in contrast to the native lymphocytic P2Z receptor, the time course of activation of hP2X7 displayed an additional linearly increasing current component. Furthermore, a second, small and slowly deactivating current component exists only in hP2X7 expressed in oocytes. The activation and deactivation kinetics as well as permeation characteristics of hP2X7 are different from rat P2X7 recently expressed in oocytes. Unlike in mammalian cells, hP2X7 expressed in Xenopus oocytes is not sufficient to induce large non-selective pores.     

Engineering a prokaryotic Cys-loop receptor with a third functional domain

Prokaryotic members of the Cys-loop receptor ligand-gated ion channel superfamily were recently identified. Previously, Cys-loop receptors were only known from multicellular organisms (metazoans). Contrary to the metazoan Cys-loop receptors, the prokaryotic ones consist of an extracellular (ECD) and a transmembrane domain (TMD), lacking the large intracellular domain (ICD) present in metazoa (between transmembrane segments M3 and M4). Using a chimera approach, we added the 115-amino acid ICD from mammalian serotonin type 3A receptors (5-HT(3A)) to the prokaryotic proton-activated Gloeobacter violaceus ligand-gated ion channel (GLIC). We created 12 GLIC-5-HT(3A)-ICD chimeras by replacing a variable number of amino acids in the short GLIC M3M4 linker with the entire 5-HT(3A)-ICD. Two-electrode voltage clamp recordings after expression in Xenopus laevis oocytes showed that only two chimeras were functional and produced currents upon acidification. The pH(50) was comparable with wild-type GLIC. 5-HT(3A) receptor expression can be inhibited by the chaperone protein RIC-3. We have shown previously that the 5-HT(3A)-ICD is required for the attenuation of 5-HT-induced currents when RIC-3 is co-expressed with 5-HT(3A) receptors in X. laevis oocytes. Expression of both functional 5-HT(3A) chimeras was inhibited by RIC-3 co-expression, indicating appropriate folding of the 5-HT(3A)-ICD in the chimeras. Our results indicate that the ICD can be considered a separate domain that can be removed from or added to the ECD and TMD while maintaining the overall structure and function of the ECD and TMD.     

Influenza A virus M2 ion channel protein: a structure-function analysis.

A structure-function analysis of the influenza A virus M2 ion channel protein was performed. The M2 protein of human influenza virus A/Udorn/72 and mutants containing changes on one face of the putative alpha helix of the M2 transmembrane (TM) domain, several of which lead to amantadine resistance when found in virus, were expressed in oocytes of Xenopus laevis. The membrane currents of oocytes expressing mutant M2 ion channels were measured at both normal and low pH, and the amantadine-resistant mutant containing the change of alanine at residue 30 to threonine was found to have a significantly attenuated low pH activation response. The specific activity of the channel current of the amantadine-resistant mutants was investigated by measuring the membrane current of individual oocytes followed by quantification of the amount of M2 protein expressed in these single oocytes by immunoblotting analysis. The data indicate that changing residues on this face of the putative alpha helix of the M2 TM domain alters properties of the M2 ion channel. Some of the M2 proteins containing changes in the TM domain were found to be modified by addition of an N-linked carbohydrate chain at an asparagine residue that is membrane proximal and which is not modified in the wild-type M2 protein. These N-linked carbohydrate chains were further modified by addition of polylactosaminoglycan. A glycosylated M2 mutant protein (M2 + V, A30T) exhibited an ion channel activity with a voltage-activated, time-dependent kinetic component. Prevention of carbohydrate addition did not affect the altered channel activity. The ability of the M2 protein to tolerate deletions in the TM domain was examined by expressing three mutants (del29-31, del28-31, and del27-31) containing deletions of three, four, and five residues in the TM domain. No ion channel activity was detected from expression of M2 del29-31 and del27-31, whereas expression of M2 del28-31 resulted in an ion channel activity that was activated by hyperpolarization (and not low pH) and was resistant to amantadine block. Examination of the oligomeric form of M2 del28-31 indicated that the oligomer is different from wild-type M2, and the data were consistent with M2 del28-31 forming a pentamer.     

Activation of the M2 ion channel of influenza virus: a role for the transmembrane domain histidine residue.

To test the hypothesis that transmembrane domain histidine residue 37 of the M2 ion channel of influenza A virus mediates the low pH-induced activation of the channel, the residue was changed to glycine, glutamate, arginine, or lysine. The wild-type and altered M2 proteins were expressed in oocytes of Xenopus laevis and membrane currents were recorded. The mass of protein expressed in individual oocytes was measured using quantitative immunoblotting and correlated with membrane currents. Oocytes expressing the M2-H37G protein had a voltage-independent conductance with current-voltage relationship similar to that of the wild-type M2 channel. The conductance of the M2-H37G protein was reversibly inhibited by the M2 ion channel blocker amantadine and was only very slightly modulated by changes in pHout over the range pH 5.4 to pH 8.2. Oocytes expressing the M2-H37E protein also had a voltage-independent conductance with a current-voltage relationship similar to that of the wild-type M2 channel. The conductance of the M2-H37E protein was reversibly inhibited by amantadine and was also only very slightly modulated by changes in pHout over the range pH 5.4 to pH 8.2. These slight alterations in conductance of the mutant ion channels on changes in pHout are in striking contrast to the 50-fold change in conductance seen for the wild-type M2 channel over the range pH 4.5 to pH 8.2. The specific activity of the M2-H37G protein was 1.36 +/- 0.37 microA/ng and the specific activity of the M2-H37E protein was 30 +/- 3 microA/ng at pH 6.2.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)