TLR9与先天性免疫反应

TLR9（Toll-likereceptor9）是一种微生物病原相关分子结构模式识别受体,TLR9能够识别CpG—ODN（胞嘧啶磷酸鸟甘-寡聚脱氧核苷酸）,使病原相关受体在先天性免疫细胞上表达,并激活下游炎性通路。研究表明,TLR9在先天性免疫反应中产生了重要作用,如脓毒血症、自身免疫性疾病、刀豆体球蛋白A介导肝炎性肝脏损伤、炎性泡沫细胞形成、缺血再灌注损伤等,并且与多种致病因子相关联,如肝x受体、甲酰多肽受体、线粒体DNA等。     

Innate immunity: structure and function of TLRs

The innate immune system provides the first line of defence against infection. Through a limited number of germline-encoded receptors called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), innate cells recognize and are activated by highly conserved structures expressed by large group of microorganisms called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). PRRs are involved either in recognition (scavenger receptors, C-type lectins) or in cell activation (Toll-like receptors or TLR, helicases and NOD molecules). TLRs play a pivotal role in cell activation in response to PAMPs. TLR are type I transmembrane proteins characterized by an intracellular Toll/IL 1 receptor homology domain that are expressed by innate immune cells (dendritic cells, macrophages, NK cells), cells of the adaptive immunity (T and B lymphocytes) and non immune cells (epithelial and endothelial cells, fibroblasts). In all the cell types analyzed, TLR agonists, alone or in combination with costimulatory molecules, induce cell activation. The crucial role played by TLR in immune cell activation has been detailed in dendritic cells. A TLR-dependent activation of dendritic cells is required to induce their maturation and migration to regional lymph nodes and to activate na?ve T cells. The ability of different cell types to respond to TLR agonists is related to the pattern of expression of the TLRs and its regulation as well as their intracellular localization. Recent studies suggest that the nature of the endocytic and signaling receptors engaged by PAMPs may determine the nature of the immune response generated against the microbial molecules, highlighting the role of TLRs as molecular interfaces between innate and adaptive immunity. In this review are summarized the main biological properties of the TLR molecules.     

Toll样受体识别机制及其生物学意义

Toll样受体介导的信号转导通路在对抗外来病原体的天然免疫应答中起重要作用。Toll样受体是一个天然模板识别受体家族,能识别固有性模板(微生物和哺乳动物所共有的病原相联的分子模板PAMPs)。Toll样受体通过巨噬细胞和其他免疫细胞来识别,其中TLR4识别内毒素、TLR2识别肽聚糖、TLR9识别细菌DNA、TLR5识别鞭毛蛋白、TLR3识别双链RNA等。本探讨了多种Toll受体家族成员在动物体内识别机理及功能,概述了其应用研究进展。     

Innate sensing of self and non-self RNAs by Toll-like receptors

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have an important role in innate immunity in mammals by recognizing conserved microbial components that are known as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Although the majority of these receptors sense pathogen components on the cell surface, a subset of them (TLR3, TLR7, TLR8 and TLR9) senses viral and bacterial nucleic acids in endosomal compartments. Of considerable interest is the recent finding that TLR7 and TLR8 can also recognize small interfering RNA (siRNA), which is the main effector in RNA interference. This immune activation by siRNAs can be abrogated by the 2'-ribose modification of uridines. Here, we discuss the recent developments that have expanded the understanding of self-non-self discrimination of RNAs by the innate immune system, and consider future directions for therapeutic applications of these findings.     

A threshold level of TLR9 mRNA predicts cellular responsiveness to CpG-ODN in haematological and non-haematological tumour cell lines

The human toll like receptor 9 (TLR9) detects differences between microbial and host DNA, based on unmethylated deoxycytidyl deoxyguanosine dinucleotide (CpG) motifs, leading to activation of both innate and adaptive immune mechanisms. The synthetic TLR9 agonist, CpG-ODN, can substitute for microbial DNA in these responses, and is in clinical trials as an immunomodulatory agent in diseases as diverse as infections, cancer and allergic disorders. Human TLR9 is expressed on cells of haematopoietic origin (principally plasmacytoid dendritic cells and B cells), but has also been described as being expressed on a number of other cell types. In order to clarify the expression and function of TLR9 in a range of cells of both haematopoietic and non-haematopoietic origin, we investigated the level of expression of TLR9 mRNA, and the ability of the cells to respond to CpG-ODN by upregulation of cell surface markers, cytokine production, cellular proliferation and activation of NFκB. Our data show that the cellular response to CpG-ODN depended on a threshold level of expression of TLR9. TLR9 was widely expressed amongst B cell tumours (with the exception of myeloma cell lines), but we did not find either threshold levels of expression of TLR9 or responses to CpG-ODN in several myeloma or myeloid tumour cell lines or any non-haematological tumour cell lines tested in our study. TLR9-positive cells varied significantly in their responses to CpG-ODN, and the level of TLR9 expression beyond the threshold did not correlate with the magnitude of the response to CpG-ODN. Finally, CpG-ODN induced NFκB activation and increased cellular proliferation in Hek293 cells that had been stably transfected with hTLR9, but did not affect the expression of surface markers or synthesis of IL-6, IL-10 or TNF-α. Thus both haematological and non-haematological cells expressing appropriate levels of TLR9 respond to CpG-ODN, but the nature of the TLR9-mediated response is dependent on cell type.     

Cutting edge: TLR2 directly triggers Th1 effector functions

Toll-like receptors recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns, activate innate immunity, and consequently modulate adaptive immunity in response to infections. TLRs are also expressed on T cells, and it has been shown that T cell activation is modulated by TLR ligands. However, the functions of TLRs on Th1 and Th2 effector cells and the molecular mechanisms underlying TLR-mediated activation are not fully understood. We analyzed TLR functions and downstream signaling events in both effector T cells. In mouse Th1 cells the stimulation by TLR2 but not by other TLRs directly induced IFN-gamma production, cell proliferation, and cell survival without TCR stimulation, and these effects were greatly enhanced by IL-2 or IL-12 through the enhanced activation of MAPKs. In contrast, no TLR affected the function of effector Th2 cells. These results identify TLR2 as a new specific activator of Th1 cell function and imply the involvement in Th1-mediated responses.     

固有免疫应答与动脉粥样硬化关系的研究进展

固有免疫应答在动脉粥样硬化(atherosclerosis,As)的发生和发展中起重要作用．固有免疫应答细胞,包括单核/巨噬细胞、肥大细胞、自然杀伤细胞、中性粒细胞和树突状细胞,是机体抵御微生物和异物入侵的第一道防线．这些细胞广泛参与As中泡沫细胞形成、斑块内基质降解、细胞凋亡、血管新生和斑块破裂等事件．模式识别受体是免疫细胞上识别病原体(或某些内源性成分)相关分子模式的一类受体分子,包括Toll样受体和NOD样受体,介导固有免疫应答反应．Toll样受体在固有免疫应答细胞中具有不同程度的表达,在As中具有不同的作用,如TLR2和TLR4对As起促进作用,而TLR3具有As保护作用．NLRP3炎性体与动脉血管壁的早期损伤有关．对固有免疫应答细胞及模式识别受体在As形成中的作用进行深入研究,不仅有助于理解As的形成过程,而且还能为临床上防治心血管类疾病提供了新的治疗靶点和诊断指标．     

A Naturally Occurring Variant in Human TLR9, P99L, Is Associated with Loss of CpG Oligonucleotide Responsiveness

The innate immune system employs Toll-like receptors (TLRs) for the detection of invading microorganisms based on distinct molecular patterns. For example, TLR9 is activated by microbial DNA and also by short therapeutic CpG-containing oligonucleotides (CpG-ODN). TLR9 activation leads to the production of interferons and the priming of humoral adaptive immune responses. Unfortunately, the principles of ligand recognition by TLR9 are poorly understood, and genetic variants of TLR9, which may affect its function, have not been characterized systematically on the molecular level. We therefore sought to functionally characterize reported single nucleotide polymorphisms of TLR9 in the HEK293 model system. We discovered that two variants, P99L and M400I, are associated with altered receptor function regarding NF-κB activation and cytokine induction. Our investigations show that for the most functionally impaired variant, P99L, the ability to respond to physiological and therapeutic TLR9 ligands is severely compromised. However, CpG-ODN binding is normal. CpG-ODN recognition by TLR9 thus appears to involve two separate events, CpG-ODN binding and sensing. Our studies highlight Pro-99 as a residue important for the latter process. In genotyping studies, we confirmed that both M400I (rs41308230) and P99L (rs5743844) are relatively rare variants of TLR9. Our data add rs41308230 and rs5743844 to the list of functionally important TLR variants and warrant further research into their relevance for infectious disease susceptibility or responsiveness to CpG-ODN-based therapies.     

Toll-like receptors and innate antifungal responses

The mammalian Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are homologues of Drosophila Toll and constitute a novel protein family involved in the mediation of innate immunity and the activation of adaptive immunity. Analysis of infection with human pathogenic fungi Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus implicated TLR2 and TLR4 in elicitation of immune responses. Cryptococcus neoformans is recognized by a process that uses TLR4. C. albicans induces immunostimulation through causative agents, such as mannan or its structural derivatives (e.g. phospholipomannan), which are recognized by the immune system as pathogen-associated molecular patterns and are located in the cell wall of fungi. Secreted aspartic proteinases represent a key virulence factor that contributes to the ability of C. albicans to cause mucosal and disseminated infections, and might be a further potential stimulator of TLRs. Simultaneous activation of other pattern recognition receptors collaborating with TLRs illustrates the cooperation of various chains within ligand-specific receptor complexes for the recognition of fungal pathogens and their cell wall components.     

Group A streptococcus activates type I interferon production and MyD88-dependent signaling without involvement of TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9

Bacterial pathogens are recognized by the innate immune system through pattern recognition receptors, such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Engagement of TLRs triggers signaling cascades that launch innate immune responses. Activation of MAPKs and NF-kappaB, elements of the major signaling pathways induced by TLRs, depends in most cases on the adaptor molecule MyD88. In addition, Gram-negative or intracellular bacteria elicit MyD88-independent signaling that results in production of type I interferon (IFN). Here we show that in mouse macrophages, the activation of MyD88-dependent signaling by the extracellular Gram-positive human pathogen group A streptococcus (GAS; Streptococcus pyogenes) does not require TLR2, a receptor implicated in sensing of Gram-positive bacteria, or TLR4 and TLR9. Redundant engagement of either of these TLR molecules was excluded by using TLR2/4/9 triple-deficient macrophages. We further demonstrate that infection of macrophages by GAS causes IRF3 (interferon-regulatory factor 3)-dependent, MyD88-independent production of IFN. Surprisingly, IFN is induced also by GAS lacking slo and sagA, the genes encoding cytolysins that were shown to be required for IFN production in response to other Gram-positive bacteria. Our data indicate that (i) GAS is recognized by a MyD88-dependent receptor other than any of those typically used by bacteria, and (ii) GAS as well as GAS mutants lacking cytolysin genes induce type I IFN production by similar mechanisms as bacteria requiring cytoplasmic escape and the function of cytolysins.     

Lymphoid follicle destruction and immunosuppression after repeated CpG oligodeoxynucleotide administration

DNA containing unmethylated cytidyl guanosyl (CpG) sequences, which are underrepresented in mammalian genomes but prevalent in prokaryotes, is endocytosed by cells of the innate immune system, including macrophages, monocytes and dendritic cells, and activates a pathway involving Toll-like receptor-9 (TLR9). CpG-containing oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG-ODN) are potent stimulators of innate immunity, and are currently being tested as adjuvants of antimicrobial, antiallergic, anticancer and antiprion immunotherapy. Little is known, however, about the consequences of repeated CpG-ODN administration, which is advocated for some of these applications. Here we report that daily injection of 60 microg CpG-ODN dramatically alters the morphology and functionality of mouse lymphoid organs. By day 7, lymphoid follicles were poorly defined; follicular dendritic cells (FDC) and germinal center B lymphocytes were suppressed. Accordingly, CpG-ODN treatment for > or =7 d strongly reduced primary humoral immune responses and immunoglobulin class switching. By day 20, mice developed multifocal liver necrosis and hemorrhagic ascites. All untoward effects were strictly dependent on CpG and TLR9, as neither the CpG-ODN treatment of Tlr9(-/-) mice nor the repetitive challenge of wild-type mice with nonstimulatory ODN (AT-ODN) or with the TLR3 agonist polyinosinic:cytidylic acid (polyI:C) were immunotoxic or hepatotoxic.     

Proteome analysis of human macrophages reveals the upregulation of manganese-containing superoxide dismutase after toll-like receptor activation

Macrophages are essential for the development of innate immune responses against a variety of infectious factors. They detect invading pathogens via their pattern recognition receptors such as toll-like receptors (TLRs). TLR7/8 recognizes ssRNA from various viruses. In the present study, we have used 2-DE gel-based proteomics to find novel TLR7/8 target proteins in human monocyte-derived macrophages in order to improve our understanding of the virus recognition by this TLR. A total of 27 protein spots were found to be reproducibly differentially expressed between control and TLR7/8 activated 2-DE gel pairs, 18 spots being more than two-fold upregulated and nine spots being at least two-fold downregulated. Several proteins involved in defense against toxic superoxide (O2-) and other reactive oxygen species, such as manganese-containing superoxide dismutase (SOD2), glutathione peroxidase, and peroxiredoxins 1 and 6 were highly upregulated after TLR7/8 activation. Western blot analysis showed that activation of macrophages with TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, and TLR7/8 ligands also strongly upregulated SOD2 protein expression. In conclusion, our results show that the activation of pattern recognition receptors of the innate immune system results in strong upregulation of SOD2 gene expression suggesting that SOD2 protects macrophages from oxidative stress during microbial infection.     

Expression and function of Toll-like receptor on T cells

Toll is the founder of a group of pattern recognition receptors, which play a critical role in the innate immunity in Drosophila. At least 13 distinct Toll-like receptors (TLRs), recognising pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMPs), have now been identified in humans. Most investigations on TLRs have focused on cells of the innate system. We report here that na?ve human T cells expressed high levels of cell surface TLR2 after activation by anti-T cell receptor (TCR) antibody and interferon-alpha. Activated cells produced elevated levels of cytokines in response to the TLR2 ligand, bacterial lipopeptide (BLP). Furthermore, CD4(+)CD45RO(+) memory T cells from peripheral blood constitutively expressed TLR2 and produced IFNgamma in response to BLP. BLP also markedly enhanced the proliferation and IFNgamma production by CD45RO(+) T cells in the presence of IL-2 or IL-15. Thus, TLR2 serves as a co-stimulatory receptor for antigen-specific T cell development and participates in the maintenance of T cell memory. This suggests that pathogens, via their PAMPs, may contribute directly to the perpetuation and activation of long term T cell memory in both antigen dependent and independent manner.     

Synthesis and immunostimulatory activity of sugar-conjugated TLR7 ligands

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a type of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which are activated by recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The activation of TLRs initiates innate immune responses and subsequently leads to adaptive immune responses. TLR agonists are effective immuomodulators in vaccine adjuvants for infectious diseases and cancer immunotherapy. In exploring hydrophilic small molecules of TLR7 ligands using the cell-targeted property of a vaccine adjuvant, we conjugated 1V209, a small TLR7 ligand molecule, with various low or middle molecular weight sugar molecules that work as carriers. The sugar-conjugated 1V209 derivatives showed increased water solubility and higher immunostimulatory activity in both mouse and human cells compared to unmodified 1V209. The improved immunostimulatory potency of sugar-conjugates was attenuated by an inhibitor of endocytic process, cytochalasin D, suggesting that conjugation of sugar moieties may enhance the uptake of TLR7 ligand into the endosomal compartment. Collectively our results support that sugar-conjugated TLR7 ligands are applicable to novel drugs for cancer and vaccine therapy.     

Ligand-regulated chimeric receptor approach reveals distinctive subcellular localization and signaling properties of the Toll-like receptors

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are sensors for the detection of invading infectious agents and can initiate innate immune responses. Because the innate immune system induces an appropriate defense against different pathogens, different TLR signaling domains may have unique properties that are responsible for eliciting distinctive responses to different types of pathogens. To test this hypothesis, we created ligand-regulated TLR chimeric receptors composed of the extracellular region of TLR4 and the transmembrane and cytoplasmic regions of other TLRs and expressed these chimeras in macrophages lacking endogenous TLR4. Interestingly, the chimeras between TLR4 and either TLR3, TLR7, or TLR9 were localized completely intracellularly whereas other chimeras were expressed on the cell surface. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a ligand for these chimeras, induced the activation of nuclear factor kappa B and mitogen-activated protein kinases and the subsequent production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in macrophages expressing TLR4, TLR4/TLR5, or TLR4/TLR8 chimeras but not in macrophages expressing TLR4/TLR1, TLR4/TLR2, or TLR4/TLR6 chimeras. Co-expression of unresponsive chimeras in some combinations (chimeras with TLR1+TLR2 or TLR2+TLR6 but not TLR1+TLR6) resulted in LPS responsiveness, indicating functional complementarity. Furthermore, the pair of TLR2+TLR6 chimera required approximately 10-fold less LPS to induce the same responses compared with the TLR1+TLR2 pair. Finally, LPS induced effective interferon-beta production and subsequent Stat1 phosphorylation in macrophages expressing full-length TLR4 but not other cell surface TLR chimeras. These results suggest that the functions of TLRs are diversified not only in their extracellular regions for ligand recognition but also in their transmembrane and cytoplasmic regions for subcellular localization and signaling properties.     

Toll-like receptors are key participants in innate immune responses

During an infection, one of the principal challenges for the host is to detect the pathogen and activate a rapid defensive response. The Toll-like family of receptors (TLRs), among other pattern recognition receptors (PRR), performs this detection process in vertebrate and invertebrate organisms. These type I transmembrane receptors identify microbial conserved structures or pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Recognition of microbial components by TLRs initiates signaling transduction pathways that induce gene expression. These gene products regulate innate immune responses and further develop an antigen-specific acquired immunity. TLR signaling pathways are regulated by intracellular adaptor molecules, such as MyD88, TIRAP/Mal, between others that provide specificity of individual TLR- mediated signaling pathways. TLR-mediated activation of innate immunity is involved not only in host defense against pathogens but also in immune disorders. The involvement of TLR-mediated pathways in auto-immune and inflammatory diseases is described in this review article.     

Development of CpG-Oligodeoxynucleotides for Effective Activation of Rabbit TLR9 Mediated Immune Responses

CpG-oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG-ODN) are potent immune stimuli being developed for use as adjuvants in different species. Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) is the cellular receptor for CpG-ODN in mammalian cells. The CpG-ODN with 18–24 deoxynucleotides that are in current use for human and mouse cells, however, have low activity with rabbit TLR9. Using a cell-based activation assay, we developed a type of CpG-ODN containing a GACGTT or AACGTT motif in 12 phosphorothioate-modified deoxynucleotides with potent stimulatory activity for rabbit TLR9. The developed CpG-ODN have higher activities than other developed CpG-ODN in eliciting antigen-nonspecific immune responses in rabbit splenocytes. When mixed with an NJ85 peptide derived from rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus, they had potent activities to boost an antigen-specific T cell activation and antibody production in rabbits. Compared to Freund’s adjuvant, the developed CpG-ODN are capable of boosting a potent and less toxic antibody response. The results of this study suggest that both the choice of CpG-motif and its length are important factors for CpG-ODN to effectively activate rabbit TLR9 mediated immune responses.     

TLR9 and RIG-I Signaling in Human Endocervical Epithelial Cells Modulates Inflammatory Responses of Macrophages and Dendritic Cells In Vitro

The innate immune system has evolved to recognize invading pathogens through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs).Among PRRs, Toll like receptors (TLRs 3, 7/8,9) and RIG-I like receptors (RLRs) have been shown to recognize viral components. Mucosal immune responses to viral infections require coordinated actions from epithelial as well as immune cells. In this respect, endocervical epithelial cells (EEC''s) play an important role in initiating innate immune responses via PRRs. It is unknown whether EEC''s can alter immune responses of macrophages and dendritic cells (DC''s) like its counterparts in intestinal and respiratory systems. In this study, we show that endocervical epithelial cells (End1/E6E7) express two key receptors, TLR9 and RIG-I involved in anti-viral immunity. Stimulation of End1/E6E7 cells lead to the activation of NF-κB and increased secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-6 and IL-8. Polarized End1/E6E7 cells responded to apical stimulation with ligands of TLR9 and RIG-I, CpG-ODN and Poly(I:C)LL respectively, without compromising End1/E6E7 cell integrity. At steady state, spent medium from End1/E6E7 cells significantly reduced secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines from LPS treated human primary monocyte derived macrophages (MDMs) and DC:T cell co-cultures. Spent medium from End1/E6E7 cells stimulated with ligands of TLR9/RIG-I restored secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines as well as enhanced phagocytosis and chemotaxis of monocytic U937 cells. Spent medium from CpG-ODN and Poly(I:C)LL stimulated End1/E6E7 cells showed significant increased secretion of IL-12p70 from DC:T cell co-cultures. The anti-inflammatory effect of spent media of End1/E6E7 cell was observed to be TGF-β dependent. In summary, the results of our study indicate that EEC''s play an indispensable role in modulating anti-viral immune responses at the female lower genital tract.