An Assessment of Introductory Restoration Courses in the United States and Canada

A considerable number of institutions offer courses in restoration ecology and its application, ecological restoration. We quantified the scope and structure of introductory restoration courses at 67 post‐secondary institutions by reviewing institutional course catalogs and course syllabi. Most courses were available at Research‐level institutions. More than half of the courses were offered within departments that focused on natural resource management, and were required or optional in a degree program. Most courses were taught in classroom settings during the academic year and were geared toward advanced students. Course titles suggested an emphasis on the science of restoration ecology over the practice of ecological restoration, and learning objectives focused primarily on concepts and less on skills and attitudes. Assessment was largely via conventional methods, notably exams. Many courses assigned readings from the primary literature; there was little consensus in terms of text selection. We conclude that restoration is being presented to students as an advanced undertaking and in largely theoretical terms. Although we were unable to consider other important elements such as thematic content, class size, or pedagogical method, our study provides a baseline assessment of introductory restoration courses that can be used to evaluate changes in restoration education or opportunities for restoration education in other countries. These results can inform the development of new introductory restoration courses, and raise important considerations in light of the development of a Practitioners' Certification Program by the Society for Ecological Restoration.     

On the teaching of ecological restoration in Brazil: an analysis of postgraduate courses

Several ambitious restoration targets have been set for recovering degraded ecosystems in Brazil (21 million hectares with a legal deficit of native vegetation). The development of scientific knowledge and skilled professionals is necessary to meet this demand and is fundamental for achieving success in medium‐ and long‐term restoration. In this study, we describe the availability and profile of postgraduate courses on ecological restoration in Brazil. We surveyed 272 postgraduate programs, comprising six specific areas of concentration (forestry, soil sciences, botany, environmental engineering, ecology, and environmental science). We analyzed all selected courses in terms of location, approach (economic, social, and legal), and restoration techniques. Only 27% of the postgraduate programs analyzed offer ecological restoration courses, and 49% of these are offered in the southeast region of the country. Regions covered by nonforest ecosystems, such as Pampas, Caatinga, and Pantanal, were poorly represented. Legal aspects were considered in 51% of the courses, whereas social and economic approaches were only considered in 2.7 and 11% of the courses, respectively. Seedling planting (85%) and nucleation (68%) were the most frequently cited techniques of active restoration, and passive restoration was mentioned in 63% of the courses. Our findings highlight the need for increasing postgraduate courses in areas with nonforest ecosystems, especially due to a lack of knowledge about restoration of these areas. The incorporation of economic and social approaches is highly recommended, considering the importance of these attributes in achieving success in large‐scale restoration initiatives.     

The Physiology undergraduate major in the University of Arizona College of Medicine: past, present, and future

The American Physiological Society (APS) and APS Council encourage the teaching of physiology at the undergraduate, graduate, and medical school levels to support the continued prominence of this area of science. One area identified by the APS Council that is of particular importance for the development of future physiologists (the "physiology pipeline") is the teaching of physiology and physiology-related topics at the undergraduate level. In this article, we describe the historical development and implementation of an undergraduate program offered through the Department of Physiology, a basic science department in the College of Medicine at the University of Arizona, culminating in a Bachelor of Science in Health Sciences degree with a major in Physiology. Moreover, we discuss the current Physiology curriculum offered at our institution and explain how this program prepares our students for successful entry into a variety of postbaccalaureate professional programs, including medical school and numerous other programs in health professions, and in graduate study in the Masters and Doctoral programs in biomedical sciences. Finally, we cover the considerable challenges that we have faced, and continue to face, in developing and sustaining a successful physiology undergraduate major in a college of medicine. We hope that the information provided on the Physiology major offered by the Department of Physiology in the College of Medicine at the University of Arizona will be helpful for individuals at other institutions who may be contemplating the development and implementation of an undergraduate program in Physiology.     

Ensuring the supply of highly qualified pharmaceutical scientist specialists in product development and related technologies for present and future needs—Report of the 2004 PT Section Education Committee

The 2004 PT Section Education Committee took the first steps in addressing the charge: “How can the supply of highly qualified pharmaceutical scientist specialists in product development and related technologies that meet current and future needs be ensured?” This charge was borne out of earlier reports and current experience that suggest that: (1) graduate programs in colleges of pharmacy are increasingly failing to produce sufficient numbers of appropriately qualified specialists in product development and related pharmaceutical technologies and, (2) the pharmaceutical industry has been forced to recruit and train scientists from other disciplines. Surveys conducted by this committee of the membership (PT, PDD and BT sections) and a representative group of pharmaceutical executives validated this concern and provided insight into its nature and depth. For example, the executives reported that 50% or less of product development staff have undergraduate degrees in pharmacy and that 50% or less have advanced degrees in pharmaceutics/industrial pharmacy/pharmaceutical technology, yet entry-level PhDs in these specialties bring a better mix of skills to the product development table than their counterparts from other science disciplines, and that this advantage persist even after 4–6 years experience on the job. And the great difficulty in finding candidates with the, right mix of experience and education was also made clear by the surveys. Based in part on an analysis of these surveys, this committee developed an extensive list of issues to be addressed by future PT Education committees and AAPS. Among these were: (1) Should AAPS encourage and assist in the establishment of graduate programs in product development/technology and/or tracks in academic institutions whether or not they are colleges of pharmacy?, (2) Should AAPS develop standards for and qualify such educational programs and tracks? (3) How do we and what role should AAPS play in creating awareness in colleges and universities of our needs and the incentives to develop and maintain programs that meet these needs?, and (4) How can stable funding be provided for programs in product development and technology?     

Post‐Project Appraisals of River Restoration in Advanced University Instruction

Post‐project appraisals (PPAs) are systematic assessments of built restoration projects, which provide feedback on performance of restoration approaches to improve future restoration efforts. Unfortunately, most restoration projects are not subject to systematic assessment because of lack of institutional arrangements to sustain long‐term evaluation and the orientation of most funding agencies towards project implementation rather than “studies.” As semester‐long courses on river restoration increasingly appear in university curricula at the graduate and advanced undergraduate level, independent student research projects for such courses can provide a mechanism for building a database of PPAs (and components thereof) and providing the students with a powerful learning experience. In two UC Berkeley courses, we require independent student projects involving original field research, peer review of first drafts, instructor (and often outside) review of second drafts, and presentation of results to a public symposium. Since 1995, the revised, final papers have been added to the University of California library, where they constitute one of the largest collections of restoration‐related studies currently available for any region: over 300 restoration‐related studies, of which 80 are PPAs or components thereof. Since 2003, the papers have been posted on‐line, with 40,000 full text downloads through 2010. Some term projects have directly influenced river restoration programs, inducing changes in salmon habitat enhancement project design, documenting failure of projects based on inappropriate restoration approaches, and contributing to systematic assessments of step‐pool and compound channel designs in urban areas. Student evaluations cite the term projects as valuable learning experiences.     

Multidimensional training among Latin America's restoration professionals

The ambitious restoration commitments made by Latin American countries have increased the demand for professionals having multidimensional training in ecological restoration; however, little is known about the kind of training that professionals are currently receiving. Through an online survey, we explored whether restoration professionals in Latin America have been trained on the ecological, socioeconomic, and management dimensions of ecological restoration, and their perceptions of training constraints and curricula needs. Half of the 411 respondents simultaneously work in academia, governments, and nongovernmental organizations, lessening the typical division between the science and practice of restoration, and suggesting the need for stronger multidimensional training to adequately respond to different needs and expectations. Over 80% received formal academic training in fields relevant for restoration and most respondents also reported attending interdisciplinary courses. Training was more focused on the ecological dimension of restoration compared to socioeconomic or management dimensions. Respondents have similar education levels (i.e. most respondents have postgraduate degrees), independently from the organization type in which respondents work, and multidimensionality among organization types was slight. Professionals expressed a need for training opportunities not demanding full‐time dedication. Although increasing training opportunities in socioeconomic and management dimensions is needed, we highlight opportunities to reinforce multidimensional training on restoration through organizational and institutional training, and collaborations among organizations.     

Ecological engineering: A rationale for standardized curriculum and professional certification in the United States

The demand for engineering solutions to ecosystem–level problems has increased as the impact of human activities has expanded to global proportions. While the science of restoration ecology has been developed to address many critical ecosystem management issues, the high degree of complexity and uncertainty associated with these issues demands a more quantitative approach. Ecological engineering uses science-based quantification of ecological processes to develop and apply engineering-based design criteria for sustainable systems. We suggest that in the United States ecological engineering curricula should be offered at the graduate level and should require rigorous Accreditation Board of Engineering and Technology-accredited (or equivalent) undergraduate preparation in engineering fundamentals. In addition to strengthening students’ mastery of engineering theory and application, the graduate curriculum should provide core courses in ecosystem theory including quantitative ecology, systems ecology, restoration ecology, ecological engineering, ecological modeling, and ecological engineering economics. Advanced courses in limnology, environmental plant physiology, ecological economics, and specific ecosystem design should be provided to address students’ specific professional objectives. Finally, professional engineering certification must be developed to insure the credibility of this new engineering specialization.     

Sports performance graduate program interest and need survey: a brief report from the NSCA Education Committee

The Education Recognition Program (ERP) was developed to acknowledge academic institutions meeting departmental criteria established by the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) for having an area of concentration in undergraduate strength and conditioning. Since its inception, over 40 universities have received recognition status. The NSCA is currently examining the interest, need, and feasibility of creating an ERP for graduate curriculum specific to sports performance. The current investigation included a survey of Division I, II, and III strength and conditioning professionals. Surveys were mailed to 215 coaches, of which 53 responded (26% rate of return). Five factors were extracted from the questionnaire and were subsequently named: Application of Science to Strength and Conditioning, Professional Development, Graduate Curriculum Support, Graduate Program Requirements, and Graduate Assistantships. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) found significant differences on Application of Science to Strength and Conditioning and Professional Development when comparing highest degree earned. Pairwise analysis indicated that individuals with Master's degrees scored those factors higher compared with individuals with Bachelor's degrees. The results from this survey provide initial information from current strength and conditioning professionals regarding the interest and need for developing formalized graduate curriculum specifically for sports performance.     

Integrating recent advances in neuroscience into undergraduate neuroscience and physiology courses

Neuroscience has enjoyed tremendous growth over the past 20 years, including a substantial increase in the number of neuroscience departments, programs, and courses at the undergraduate level. To meet the need of new neuroscience courses, there has also been growth in the number of introductory neuroscience textbooks designed for undergraduates. However, textbooks typically trail current knowledge by five to ten years, especially in neuroscience where our understanding is increasing rapidly. Consequently, it is often important to supplement neuroscience and physiology textbooks with information about recent findings in neuroscience. To design supplementary educational material, it is essential first to identify the educational objectives of the program and the characteristics of the learners, which can differ dramatically between undergraduate and graduate or professional students. Four principles that may serve the selection and design of supplementary material for undergraduate neuroscience and physiology courses are that (1) material must be interesting to the undergraduates, (2) material should reinforce previously learned concepts, (3) students must be adequately prepared, and (4) the teacher and student must have sufficient appropriate resources.     

Physical anthropology in the U.S.A.: the malaise and its cure

Physical anthropology in the U.S.A. shows symptoms of a malaise giving cause for concern. It is argued that their origin does not lie in weakness in the subject, which elsewhere is more flourishing, like other life sciences, than it has ever been; nor in a lack of student interest; but in historical inertia. This affects the affiliation of the subject, undergraduate teaching, graduate training, and opportunities for professional practice.     

Graduate education and the role of the physical anthropologist in biomedical teaching and research

There is a place for the physical anthropologist in biomedical teaching and research because of the special and unique skills possessed by this individual. However, eventual success in the health sciences environment requires the student to obtain the knowledge and background for functionally oriented teaching and research. Students interested in a biomedical teaching and research career must prepare themselves methodologically and theoretically. This requires: (1) teaching qualifications, (2) an increased emphasis on methodology and technology, (3) an increased emphasis on research and experimental design, (4) appropriate interdisciplinary courses which provide the background for both teaching and research, (5) increased interaction with graduate faculty active in research, and (6) the latitude to adapt the graduate program to meet these specific needs. Students who finish their graduate training with a marketable skill, and who can apply their unique talents to a specialized area, will have broad appeal in the job market and will considerably strengthen their career opportunities.     

Can current native tree seedling production and infrastructure meet an increasing forest restoration demand in Brazil?

Recent global commitments have placed forest and landscape restoration at the forefront of countries' efforts to recover ecosystem services, conserve biodiversity, and mitigate the effects of climate change. However, it needs to be asked if current native tree seedling supply meets an increase in demand for forest restoration? This study assessed the current configuration, distribution, and production capacity of forest nurseries producing native trees in Brazil. Brazil provides an interesting example of how global agreements aligned with national policies can lead to the proliferation of native seedling nurseries, and the challenges faced to restore species‐rich native forest ecosystems. We found that the nurseries in the Atlantic Forest region can still meet an increase in demand—both in terms of seedling quantity and diversity—because most of their production capacity is not currently used. However, not all Brazilian biomes have sufficient nurseries to meet restoration demands, thus there is a risk of using native species from a few biogeographical regions in a much spatially wider and ecologically diverse area. In addition, lack of seed supply and qualified labor can hamper the growth of the market. Barriers to seed supply may also lead to low levels of genetic variability and floristic representation in the populations and ecosystems to be restored. We conclude that restoration of high‐diversity forest ecosystems requires policies and supportive programs, with emphasis on private nurseries, to guarantee adequate supply of native tree seedlings and provide the necessary incentives to develop the emergent economy of forest restoration.     

Opportunities and Challenges for Ecological Restoration within REDD+

The Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) mechanism has the potential to provide the developing nations with significant funding for forest restoration activities that contribute to climate change mitigation, sustainable management, and carbon‐stock enhancement. In order to stimulate and inform discussion on the role of ecological restoration within REDD+, we outline opportunities for and challenges to using science‐based restoration projects and programs to meet REDD+ goals of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and storing carbon in forest ecosystems. Now that the REDD+ mechanism, which is not yet operational, has expanded beyond a sole focus on activities that affect carbon budgets to also include those that enhance ecosystem services and deliver other co‐benefits to biodiversity and communities, forest restoration could play an increasingly important role. However, in many nations, there is a lack of practical tools and guidance for implementing effective restoration projects and programs that will sequester carbon and at the same time improve the integrity and resilience of forest ecosystems. Restoration scientists and practitioners should continue to engage with potential REDD+ donors and recipients to ensure that funding is targeted at projects and programs with ecologically sound designs.     

The need for broader ecological and socioeconomic tools to evaluate the effectiveness of coral restoration programs

Coral reef restoration initiatives are burgeoning in response to the need for novel management strategies to address dramatic global declines in coral cover. However, coral restoration programs typically lack rigor and critical evaluation of their effectiveness. A review of 83 peer‐reviewed papers that used coral transplantation for reef restoration reveals that growth and survival of coral fragments were the most widely used indicators of restoration success, with 88% of studies using these two indicators either solely (55%) or in combination with a limited number of other ecological factors (33%). In 53% of studies, reef condition was monitored for 1 year or less, while only 5% of reefs were monitored for more than 5 years post‐transplantation. These results highlight that coral reef restoration science has focused primarily on short‐term experiments to evaluate the feasibility of techniques for ecological restoration and the initial establishment phase post‐transplantation, rather than on longer‐term outcomes for coral reef communities. Here, we outline 10 socioecological indicators that comprehensively evaluate the effectiveness of coral reef restoration across the four pillars of sustainability (i.e. environmental, sociocultural, governance, and economic contributions to sustainable communities). We recommend that evaluations of the effectiveness of coral restoration programs integrate ecological indicators with sociocultural, economic, and governance considerations. Assessing the efficacy of coral restoration as a tool to support reef resilience will help to guide future efforts and ensure the sustainable maintenance of reef ecosystem goods and services.     

Carbon Offsets as Ecological Restorations

The explosive growth of carbon markets is creating unprecedented opportunities for landscape‐scale restoration worldwide. Most mandatory and voluntary greenhouse gas reduction programs allow use of carbon offset credits, including biosequestration projects, to replace actual emission reductions. Are the market schemes configured in a way that promotes ecosystem recovery and long‐term carbon storage? As importantly, is it likely that these efforts will provide significant social and environmental co‐benefits to justify trading offsets rather than actually reducing emissions? Compared with social scientists working in sustainable development, restoration ecologists have not offered much advice on the way carbon markets could be configured to support lasting restorations. Under current standards, the market price is likely governing the quality of restorations, not the reverse. A variety of reforms are needed to ensure that biosequestration projects deliver real, additional, and permanent removals of carbon dioxide. In particular, developing and adopting social and environmental impact assessment tools, changing accounting practices to allow for natural disturbances, universal adoption of strong additionality testing, and supporting critical research through tonnage fees could substantially improve what is accomplished through carbon offsets. Given the magnitude and importance of what carbon markets are attempting to achieve, insights from restoration ecologists are urgently needed to help shape their future.     

Training the next generation of protein scientists

Carl Brändén made significant contributions in areas of protein X‐ray crystallography and science education. As the 2011 recipient of the Protein Society award honoring Carl's contributions, I had the opportunity to reflect on the undergraduate educational activities that have been practiced in my own laboratory over the past 24 years at the University of Maryland Baltimore County, an institution that emphasizes both research and undergraduate education. A system has been developed that attempts to minimize the tension that can exist between conflicting graduate research and undergraduate mentoring goals. The outcomes, as measured not only by subsequent activities of the participating undergraduates, but also by the activities of the graduate students and postdocs that worked with the undergraduates, indicate a general overall benefit for all participants, particularly for women and underrepresented minorities who are traditionally poorly retained in the sciences. Greater participation of undergraduates in research activities of active scientists who often focus primarily on graduate and postdoctoral training could have a positive impact on the leaky undergraduate science pipeline.     

Balancing economic costs and ecological outcomes of passive and active restoration in agricultural landscapes: the case of Brazil

Forest restoration requires strategies such as passive restoration to balance financial investments and ecological outcomes. However, the ecological outcomes of passive restoration are traditionally regarded as uncertain. We evaluated technical and legal strategies for balancing economic costs and ecological outcomes of passive versus active restoration in agricultural landscapes. We focused in the case of Brazil, where we assessed the factors driving the proportion of land allocated to passive and active restoration in 42 programs covering 698,398 hectares of farms in the Atlantic Forest, Atlantic Forest/cerrado ecotone and Amazon; the ecological outcomes of passive and active restoration in 2955 monitoring plots placed in six restoration programs; and the legal framework developed by some Brazilian states to balance the different restoration approaches and comply with legal commitments. Active restoration had the highest proportion of land allocated to it (78.4%), followed by passive (14.2%) and mixed restoration (7.4%). Passive restoration was higher in the Amazon, in silviculture, and when remaining forest cover was over 50 percent. Overall, both restoration approaches showed high levels of variation in the ecological outcomes; nevertheless, passively restored areas had a smaller percentage canopy cover, lower species density, and less shrubs and trees (dbh > 5 cm). The studied legal frameworks considered land abandonment for up to 4 years before deciding on a restoration approach, to favor the use of passive restoration. A better understanding of the biophysical and socioeconomic features of areas targeted for restoration is needed to take a better advantage of their natural regeneration potential.     

Technologies to support the creation of complex systems models--using StarLogo software with students

Research on complex, adaptive systems has made significant advances in recent years in the study of natural and social phenomena that exhibit random variation and selection, resulting in learning or evolution. Unfortunately, students (including K-12, undergraduate and graduate) in most biology programs have little opportunity to explore complex systems during the course of their studies. StarLogo and the Adventures in Modeling Curriculum [Adventures in Modeling: Exploring Complex, Dynamic Systems with StarLogo. Teachers College Press, New York] provide an easily accessible entry point into complex systems modeling for students and other novice modelers. These specialized tools can provide powerful insights into the dynamics of systems and create opportunities to explore challenging and meaningful domains in the biological sciences. Specific applications to epidemiological and ecological systems are explored, including the often debated topic of the evolution of reduced attack rates in predator-prey systems.     

Postsecondary Education in Industrial Ecology Across the World

In recent years, industrial ecology (IE) has become increasingly integrated into formal education as a distinct body of work. The aim of this article is to describe the state of IE in postsecondary education across the world by providing an inventory of programs and courses offered from a search conducted during the summer of 2012. Although some interpretation of the results is conducted, the aim of this article is to provide a snapshot of the state of IE in higher education in 2012 and serve as a starting point for future work. Data were collected on IE courses and programs across the world by Internet search in order to determine the prevalence of IE in postsecondary curricula. Subsequently, 190 universities and colleges from 46 countries were identified as offering courses and/or programs in IE. From this research, a total of 409 courses and 78 programs were inventoried and course content was analyzed (where available). The results indicate that IE is mainly studied at the graduate level within engineering and environmental disciplines, although undergraduate‐level curricula are emerging. In terms of disciplinary departments offering said curricula, IE is presented as a topic of instruction in varied fields of study, such as business and administration, and the arts. From the course syllabi analyzed, the main subjects being taught within IE education are introductory principles and general tools. Advanced or specialized aspects of the field are also covered, however, less frequently.