Descriptive models for the system of the natural spread of infection of rice dwarf virus (RDV) by the green rice leafhopper,Nephotettix cincticeps Uhler (Hemiptera: Deltocephalidae)

Seasonal changes in the densities of eggs and of 1st instar nymphs of N. cincticeps, a vector of the rice dwarf virus (RDV) and those in the proportion of virus-infected rice hills were examined by regular field censuses during the period of 1964–69 at two localities in Kochi, Nangoku and Ino. The proportion of virus-infected insects in the vector population was measured by the serological test. Mean fecundity of adult females of N. cincticeps in different generations was assessed by the method proposed byHokyo andKiritani (1968) in 1966 and 1967. Using observed variables as mentioned above, two mathematical models were built up for the system of the natural spread of infection of RDV. Submodels describing generation-to-generation changes in densities of eggs, 1st instar nymphs and leafhopper adults were involved in both Models 1 and 2. In Model 1, the proportion (P) of infected insects in the vector population was assumed to be determined directly by the amount (I_v) of infected rice plants in the field. In Model 2, instead of relating P directly to I_v,P was related to the acquisition rate (W) of RDV by the insects and to the effect of RDV (αr) on fecundity and survival of infected insects. Then, W was related to I_v. The estimates of P by these models fitted well to the observed values for 1st to 3rd generations but a great deviation was noted in 4th and 5th generations. For the percentage of infected rice hills, both models gave relatively good estimates in the early planted rice, though they gave overestimated values in the late planted rice.     

Epizootiology of virus diseases in three lepidopterous insect species of alfalfa

Summary The incidence of virus infections in three lepidopterous insect species was studied from 1965 to 1968 in alfalfa fields in California. The insects were the alfalfa caterpillar,Colias eurytheme; the beet armyworm,Spodoptera exigua; and the alfalfa looper,Autographa californica. InC. eurytheme, the major virus was a nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV); inS. exigua, a granulosis virus (GV) and an NPV; inA. californica, a GV. Virus epizootics did not develop in very high densities ofC. eurytheme. Virus epizootics occurred in low host densities of the three insect species, especially in populations ofA. californica. The virus acted as a density-dependent factor in the regulation of the populations ofS. exigua andA. californica. Temperature, humidity and rainfall had no marked effect on the incidence of virus infections.     

A model for analyzing insect stage-frequency data when mortality varies with time

A model is developed for the analysis of insect stage-frequency data which may be applied to populations with age-dependent mortality. The analysis of stage-frequency data is divided into two steps. In the first step, the number of different mortality rates and their values are estimated. The second step provides estimates of developmental rates and variances for each developmental stage and in addition provides estimates of the number of recruits to each stage. The model may be used both in analysis and prediction of insect stage frequencies. Hence, in addition to estimating developmental and mortality rates from stage-frequency data, it may also be used as a simulation model for an insect population. The model is applied to two populations of Hemileuca oliviaeCockerell , a lepidopterous pest of New Mexico grasslands. The model identifies, in the two populations, different mortality rates that are related to plant productivity.     

On the mode of selection inEscherichia coli

Competition experiments between a lac⁺ prototroph and a lac⁻ auxotroph of Escherichia coli were conducted by serial transfer procedure on four levels of sugar concentration. Changes of the relative frequencies of both genotypes were followed and the relative fitness was estimated. Fitness was proved to be density-dependent. No explicit dependence of fitness upon genotype frequencies could be detected by the simple method ofKosuda (1981).     

Three-dimensional structure of the inner core of rice dwarf virus

Rice dwarf virus (RDV) is a double-shelled icosahedral virus.Using electron cryomicroscopy and computer reconstruction techniques, we have determined a 3.3 nm resolution three-dimensional (3D) structure of the inner shell capsid without the outer shell and viral RNA. The results show that the inner shell is a thin, densely packed, smooth structure, which provides a scaffold for the full virus. A total of 120 copies of the major inner shell capsid protein P3 forms 60 dimers arranged in a T=1 icosahedral lattice. A close examination on the subunit packing of the T=1 inner core P3 with that of the T=13l outer shell P8 indicated that P8 trimers connect with P3 through completely non-equivalent, yet highly specific, intermolecular interactions.     

Three-dimensional structure of the inner core of rice dwarf virus

Rice dwarf virus (RDV) is a double-shelled icosahedral virus. Using electron cryomicro-scopy and computer reconstruction techniques, we have determined a 3.3 nm resolution three-dimensional (3D) structure of the inner shell capsid without the outer shell and viral RNA. The results show that the inner shell is a thin, densely packed, smooth structure, which provides a scaffold for the full virus. A total of 120 copies of the major inner shell capsid protein P3 forms 60 dimers arranged in a T=1 icosahedral lattice. A close examination on the subunit packing of the T=1 inner core P3 with that of the T=13/ outer shell P8 indicated that P8 trimers connect with P3 through completely non-equivalent, yet highly specific, intermolecular interactions.     

The role of ants in the epidemiology of barley yellow dwarf virus

The effect of ant attendance on the spread of barley yellow dwarf virus by Schizaphis (Toxoptera) graminum (Rondani) was studied under field conditions. Aphids visited by ants multiplied more rapidly than unattended colonies. Secondary spread of virus is caused by apterae which leave overcrowded plants and become established on nearby hosts. Ant-mediated spread of virus is typically confined to the edges of the field. Excavations made by ants around subterranean parts of small grains provide shelter and a suitable feeding site for tht aphid vector.

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Zusammenfassung Die Anregung zur vorliegenden Arbeit wurde dadurch gegeben, daß während einer Schlechtwetterperiode auf unterirdischen Teilen von Hafer- und Gerstenpflanzen von Ameisen besuchte Blattlauskolonien beobachtet wurden. Es handelte sich dabei um die Ameise Lasius neoniger (Emery) und die Blattlaus Schizaphis graminum (Rondani), die als Getreideschädling und als Überträger der Gelbverzwergungsvirose der Gerste in Nordamerika außerordentlich schädlich ist.Die Ergebnisse der Studie bestätigen erneut ältere Beobachtungen, nach denen sich die Populationsdichte der von Ameisen besuchten Blattläuse erheblich erhöht. Verschiedentlich konnte nachgewiesen werden, daß Ameisen Blattlausfeinde, insbesondere Marienkäfer, vertreiben, sobald diese in ihr Territorium eindringen.Die durch Ameisen geförderte Ausbreitung des Virus muß im engen Zusammenhang mit der populationsfördenden Wirkung des Blattlausbesuches gesehen werden. Ungeflügelte Blattläuse verlassen übervölkerte Pflanzen und wandern in die Umgebung der Wirtspflanze ab. Dabei können Entfernungen zurückgelegt werden, die ohne weiteres ausreichen, benachbarte Pflanzen aufzufinden und gegebenenfals mit Virus zu infizieren. Dadurch, daß sich L. neoniger hauptsächlich an den Feldrändern aufhält, bleibt allerdings die Virusausbreitung auf diese Region beschränkt und dringt nicht weiter in den Bestand vor. Selbst unter günstigen Bedingungen, das heißt in der Gegenwart von Ameisen, Blattläusen und Virus während des anfälligen Jugendstadiums des Getreides, bleibt die Ausbreitung des Virus und der dadurch angerichtete Schaden eng lokalisiert.Eine gewisse Bedeutung in der Epidemiologie der Gelbverzwergungsvirose dürfte auch dem Vorkommen von Blattläusen auf unterirdischen Pflanzenteilen zuzuschreiben sein, weil die Läuse hier gegen Witterungs- und Feindeinwirkung geschützt sind.Die von verschiedenen Seiten beobachtete enge Bindung zwischen Ameisen und Blattläusen konnte in dem vorliegenden Fall nicht beobachtet werden. Ein besonderer Instinkt der Ameisen oder Blattläuse scheint mir zur Aufrechterhaltung der Wechselbeziehung nicht notwendig.

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Approved for publication by the Director of the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station as Journal Series No. 583.     

Survival curves of the population ofdendrolimus spectabilis Bulter (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae)

Summary Six survival curves were drawn (Fig. 1) from a survey over two generations of the population ofDendro'imus spectabi'is Butler at three different places in the Tokyo University Forest in Aichi during the years from 1957 to 1959. The counting of insect number was done at one month interval except during the winter season. Any apparent mortality expressed as percentage decrease was not related in this survey with the density of insect population at the beginning of each interval. Considering of the magnitude and the variability of each apparent mortality, there were three critical periods of heavy decrease in the generation decline, they were; 1) September to October when newly born larvae were dispersing, 2) December to March when the third instar larvae were overwintering, and 3) August to September for the period of fully grown larvae and pupae.     

南方水稻黑条矮缩病毒介体昆虫白背飞虱的传毒特性

白背飞虱Sogatella furcifera(Horváth)为传播南方水稻黑条矮缩病病毒(SRBSDV)的媒介昆虫,阐明其传毒特性将有助于了解南方水稻黑条矮缩病的发生流行规律和建立相应的防治方法。本研究通过RT-PCR技术测定了白背飞虱的传毒参数。结果表明,白背飞虱初孵若虫、3龄若虫、5龄若虫、长翅型成虫和短翅型成虫的最短获毒时间分别是11、6、3、2和2min,最长获毒时间分别是19、12、9、8和8min。在26℃时,SRBSDV在不同虫态(初孵若虫、3龄若虫、5龄若虫、长翅型成虫和短翅型成虫)的白背飞虱体内的循回期分别是7～11、5～8、3～7、4～8和3～6d。5龄若虫、长翅型和短翅型成虫在三叶一心稻苗的最短接毒时间为4、5和6min,最长接毒时间为8、10和11min;它们在分蘖初期稻苗上的最短接毒时间分别是5、7和7min,最长接毒时间分别是10、12和12min。白背飞虱获毒后可终身传毒,但不能经白背飞虱卵传毒,单虫最多传毒株数为87株,平均传毒48.3±0.8株。可见,该虫具有较强的获毒能力和传毒能力,秧苗易感染SRBSDV。因此,在防治上应尽量清除田间SRBSDV毒源植物,减少白背飞虱获毒的机会,在秧田期和移栽初期应重点防治飞虱。     

The role of subterranean aphids in the epidemiology of barley yellow dwarf virus

Survival and dispersal of three root aphid species under greenhouse conditions was greatly enhanced in the presence of Lasius neoniger Emery. the ant was observed carrying three root aphid species but not two above-ground species. All attempts to transmit barley yellow dwarf (BYDV) with Forda olivacea Rohwer, Geoica utricularia (Passerini), Anoecia setariae Gillette & Palmer, or Aphis maidiradicis Forbes failed. However, A. maidiradicis was able to transmit cucumber mosaic virus. Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) could acquire BYDV from barley roots, but it rarely infected plants when feeding on roots.

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Zusammenfassung Die vorliegende Arbeit versucht die Bedeutung unterirdisch lebender Blattläuse für die Gelbverzwergungsvirose der Gerste zu klären. Sie schliesst sich damit früheren Untersuchungen über die Beziehung zwischen Schizaphis graminis (Rond.), einem Vektor des Virus, und der Ameise Lasius neoniger Emery an.Es konnte beobachtet werden, dass L. neoniger drei Wurzellausarten wegtrug, die in einer Versuchsarena freigelassen wurden, während zwei oberirdisch-lebende Blattlausarten nicht transportiert wurden. Die Gegenwart von Ameisen im Versuchsareal förderte auch die Vermehrung von Wurzelläusen auf Getreide und deren Ausbreitung auf benachbarte Pflanzen. Diese ausbreitungsfördende Wirkung des Blattlausbesuchs könnte von epidemiologischer Bedeutung sein, falls sich Wurzelläuse als Vektoren erweisen sollten. Alle Versuche, das Virus mit Forda olivacea Rohwer, Geoica utricularia (Passerini), Anoecia setariae Gillette & Palmer oder Aphis maidiradicis Forbes zu übertragen, schlugen jedoch fehl. Das nichtpersistente Gurkenmosaik konnte allerdings durch A. maidiradicis übertragen werden.Neben den typischen Wurzelläusen wurden unterirdisch lebende Rhopalosiphum padi L. im Freiland angetroffen. Übertragungsversuche ergaben, dass das Gelbverzwergungsvirus von der Blattlaus aus den Wurzeln aufgenommen werden konnte, dagegen gelang es nur selten, Getreidepflanzen durch auf Wurzeln saugende Blattläuse zu infizieren. Da aber im Freiland die Mehrzahl der unterirdisch lebenden R. padi auf den leicht zu infizierenden Stengelteilen angetroffen wurden, dürfte dieser relativen Widerstandsfähigkeit der Wurzeln gegenüber der Virusinfektion keine grössere Bedeutung zukommen.

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Approved for publication by the Director of the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station as Journal Series No. 672.     

Natural mortality at different population densities of a pine shoot moth,Evetria cristata

A field population of Evetria cristata was studied in 10 plots in 1962 and in 6 plots in 1963. These plots were divided into 2 or 3 groups of different population levels of the shoot moth in respective years. The survival of the insect was then analysed in these different groups of plots. The survival rate of E. cristata from eggs to adults in the first generation was found always higher in the group with low population density, which indicates the existence of some factors that affect the population more severely when the insect is more abundant. Lissonota evetriae and Pediobius sp. seemed to have killed more proportion of the hosts where the shoot moth density was high. However, the total effect of the all natural enemies was not always great in the plots with high density of the moth. The survival of the second generation of the moth in 1963 was observed to be much higher at any population level than in the other generations.     

The dynamics of outbreaks: Further simulation experiments with the western tent caterpillar

A stochastic model of western tent-caterpillar populations on southern Vancouver Island was used to assess conditions leading to outbreaks. Three qualitatively different populations-declining, minimal, and recovering-were exposed to six-year climatic sequences incorporating various combinations of good, bad, and mediocre spring weather. Starting populations were either distributed randomly or concentrated in and around small-, medium-, or large refuges. The results showed that virtually any type of population could temporarily increase in numbers during two highly favorable springs. Only a very few vigorous populations, however, could sustain the momentum required to surge to outbreak proportions. No low-quality population could do so. And even vigorous populations could not achieve outbreak status unless they were initially concentrated in a sufficiently large refuge that was close enough to potentially suitable habitats to permit rapid immigration into such places as soon as their local climates improved. The concept of “climatic release” of insect populations is discussed in the light of these findings. The results demonstrate that climatic release is inextricably linked with a population's qualitative profile and spatial distribution.     

A comparative study of the searching efficiencies of a parasite and a hyperparasite

The searching efficiencies of a primary parasite (Diaeretiella rapae (McIntosh )) and a hyperparasite (Alloxysta brassicae (Ash. )) were investigated and compared. In both species, at all parasite densities, there was a curvilinear relationship (P<0.001) between the number of hosts parasitised and the host density. A linear regression (log a=log Q−m log P) was fitted for log area of discovery against log parasite density (P<0.001). The area of discovery for its immediate (i.e. primary) host (viz. Diaeretiella for the hyperparasite and aphid for Diaeretiella) is lower in the hyperparasite than in the primary parasite. In Diaeretialla both the searching efficiency and the mutual interference constant increased (but not significantly, P>0.05) in the presence of its males.     

Impact of developmental variance on behavior of models for insect populations I. Models for populations with unrestricted growth

The concept of developmental variance is discussed with reference to its use in models for insect populations. When included in a model, developmental variance is typically used to describe the variation of developmental periods among individuals. However, its presence in a model can also have indirect impact on survival and fertility schedules. This impact can lead to significant changes in population growth rates and generation times. These relationships between developmental variance and population growth in models are quantified and discussed.