NOTES ON THE TAXONOMY OF THE CLAPPER LARKS OF SOUTH AFRICA.

A case is made out for grouping the various forms of clapper lark in southern Africa, other than those included in the species Mirafra rufocinnumomea (olim fischeri ), as a single polytypic species, Mirafra apiata Vieillot. Many of the described forms are listed as geographical races. The conclusions reached can only be regarded as a very early stage in the understanding of variation in this rather little-known and highly variable species.     

XIII.—On the Age of Some Races of Birds.

For the purpose of this discussion "races" are assumed to be of genetical significance. With this caveat the conclusions are offered for what they are worth.
On different lines of argument it appears that two races, Galerida cristata nigricans and Columba livia dakhlÆ have developed in the last 10,000 years.
Galerida cristata brachyura and Prinia gracilis natronensis have probably differentiated in less than 5000 years.
The fact that no Passerine races have developed in Mesopotamia may indicate that the lower figure, namely 5000 years, is not far from the minimum required for the development of an ornithological race.     

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE 4-AMINOBUTYRATE BYPATH AND THE OXIDATION OF 2-OXOGLUTARATE IN RAT BRAIN MITOCHONDRIA

Abstract— A method is described to evaluate simultaneously the contributions of 2-oxoglutarate oxidation and the GABA bypath to succinate production in isolated rat brain mitochondria.
2-Oxoglutarate oxidation is under respiratory control whereas the activity of the GABA shunt is but slightly affected by the mitochondrial energy state.
The oxidation of GABA is half-maximal with 5m m -GABA. GABA does not affect 2-oxoglutarate oxidation. 1 m m -2-oxoglutarate is optimal for GABA oxidation, whereas higher concentrations inhibit the shunt activity.
The rate of GABA oxidation observed in vitro (5 nmol/min.mg mitochondrial protein) is comparable to the activity of the shunt under in viuo conditions.
The control and the compartmentation of GABA oxidation are discussed.     

AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE BIRDS OF THE CRATER HIGHLANDS AND RIFT LAKES, NORTHERN TANGANYIKA TERRITORY.

Bird-plant communities are described. Moorland: effect of incomplete forest barrier in extending population as compared with Kilimanjaro. Upland grasslands: four subdivisions with distinctive avifauna tabularly compared. Upland bushland: two subdivisions. Evergreen forest. Upland waters. Intermediate scattered-tree grasslands: lodgment of distinctive populations. Ground-water forest. Lake and swamp: comparison between populations of Lakes Natron, Manyara and Embagai; analysis of migrant movements and biotic preferences among waterfowl.
Breeding seasons: contrast between upper and lower zones, in some cases implying biological races of common species.
Evolutionary significance of population; probable recent development of the four or five endemics; very mixed affinities of the remainder, which include forms associated with Kilimanjaro, Chyulu, Kenya Highlands, Lake Victoria basin, Uganda and S.W. Tanganyika, considered to indicate rather recent colonization, but in some instances survival from an earlier epoch.
Systematic notes on 23 species of special interest, including a review of the East African races of Colius striatus , field-notes on newly described races of Pinarochroa sordida and Cisticola hunteri , and a first account of the nesting of Nectarinia johnstoni.     

THE SOIL FUNGI OF THE DOVEY SALT MARSHES

In this investigation of the fungi of the soil of the Dovey Salt Marshes (Ynyslas) 48 fungi were isolated.
Twelve of the species found do not appear to have been recorded before for the British Isles.
The area investigated is a badly aerated, stiff, tenacious clay, alkaline in reaction ( p H 8), with a high water content, due mainly to periodical inundations by tidal salt water.
Method of investigation consisted in taking samples of soil from a depth of 11/2 and 31/2 inches and either planting portions of this directly on to specially prepared media, or first shaking up a portion in water and then inoculating the prepared media with some of the suspension.
Three fungi– Torula allii, Penicillium hyphomycetis and Fusarium oxysporium var. resupinatum —were almost invariably present in every sample of soil: almost equally common were Trichoderma lignorum, T. Köningi, Hormodendron cladosporoides, Mucor circinelloides and Periconia felina .
Most of the fungi found are species found above ground as saprophytes, and may have been introduced into the soil by drainage, etc.
The writer considers fungi are active only in association with organic material.
The vegetation covering this marsh shows marked zonation: soil samples were chiefly taken from the Glycerietum and Aimerietum.
The same species of fungi were common to the two associations.
Glyceria maritima is a most effective silt binder, because the stele of its rhizomes and roots consists almost entirely of lignified tissue which does not yield to the activities of the soil fungi; Armeria maritima is not so effective a silt binder because the stele of its rhizomes and roots contains very little lignified tissue—at a depth of a foot, the tap roots of Armeria are little more than hollow tubes, the interiors having been removed by fungi and bacteria.     

LABORATORY STUDIES ON THE CHEMO-SENSORY REACTIONS OF BLOWFLIES

Attraction of various blowflies to sheep wool has been demonstrated under laboratory conditions using a choice-chamber technique. The attractive factor in wool is intimately associated with the wool fibre for it does not disappear during storage and it is not completely removed by washing.
Only female flies were attracted to wool. The highest degree of attraction was obtained from fertilized females which had daily access to meat. Even in the absence of fertilization and meat, attraction was not completely abolished.
The species and strains tested can be placed in the following order in terms of strength of response to sheep wool: Lucilia sericata (British), L. cuprina (tested on damp floor)>L. sericata (Danish: country)> L. sericata (Danish: city), L. sericata (Australian) > L. illustris, L. caesar. No response was given by Calliphora vomitoria.
The olfactory organs involved in the response to wool are mainly on the antennae but antennaeless L. sericata and L. cuprina with some tarsi removed were still able to show some response to wool provided that they were tested on a damp floor. In the course of testing the olfactory responses it was also shown that the main humidity receptors are present on the antennae.
The existence of a 'wool-factor' to which only certain strains of L. sericata and L. cuprina are specially sensitive offers a possible explanation for the greater efficiency of these species as myiasis-producing forms.     

THE BREEDING BIOLOGY. AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE DOUBLEBANDED COURSER RHZNOPTZLUS AFRZCANUS (TEMMINCK)

In the southwestern part of the Kalahari region, the Double-banded Courser Rhinoptilus africanus is restricted to stony terrain with low vegetation and good visibility. Nests are always exposed, usually on flat ground, less often in hollows or slopes, and seldom on rises. Sixty per cent of nests were among mammal droppings.
Nest relief is rapid and occurs every two hours or so; side-throwing of small objects around the nest by the relieved bird is part of the ceremony. Incubation of the single egg takes about 26 days. The newly-hatched chick is weak and is fed exclusively by the parents for the first few days. It can fly at about six weeks of age. Breeding seems to be continuous, regardless of weather and season.
The calls, displays, comfort movements and ritualized intention movements are described and analysed as far as possible. Adult coursers are subjected to an intense heat load in summer, and have a number of behavioural heat-loss mechanisms which are described and discussed.
R. africanus and Cursorius rufus (both common coursers of the Kalahari) are briefly compared.     

THE DISTRACTION BEHAVIOUR OF THE ARCTIC SKUA

Distraction displays of the Arctic Skua Stercorarius parasiticus were studied in the Faeroe Islands in colonial nesters and a solitary pair. There are aggressive and passive forms.
The aggressive flight against human intruders is common throughout the nesting cycle in the colony, but absent from the behaviour of solitary pairs. It is suggested that its development is correlated with an internal rhythm which requires a certain level of mutual stimulation not attainable by solitary or widely-scattered pairs. A highly formalized version of the attacking flight was employed against a sheep, in which the pair showed a marked tendency to coordinate their movements.
The lure display when eggs are fresh is markedly different from that employed nearer the hatching-period and afterwards. A courtship posture appears as a substitute activity in the early period, but only in the presence of the mate.
In the solitary pair development of the normal lure display was gradual, reaching its peak towards the hatching-period: there is a marked tendency for the pair to perform together, deriving mutual stimulation. It is suggested that this factor is important in the colony, where several perform together in scattered groups, in ensuring the earlier development (and therefore increased survival value) of the lure display. The birds' movements emphasize contrasts in the plumage coloration, and therefore the pattern may have greater biological advantage for colonies of predominantly light-phase birds in areas of fox predation.
The various patterns are described, and also variations incorporating false-brooding and drinking motions. The main components of the patterns are probably derived from the primitive food-begging of the chick, and elaborated with actions from courtship display.     

THE GRANULAR INTERSTITIUM IN THE POLLEN OF SUBFAMILY PAPILIONOIDEAE (LEGUMINOSAE)

A wide range of transitional forms of granular interstitia from simple to complex and from random to ordered occur in the pollen of the subfamily Papilionoideae. Three main types are described: 1) large, widely spaced irregular granules (Type A); 2) densely packed groups of columellae and granules (Type B); and 3) a mass of more or less disorganized granules (Type C). In the genus Calopogonium (tribe Phaseoleae) all three types have been found in different species. Two of the types have been found in different species of the genus Psoralea (tribe Psoraleeae). Granular structures so far occur in six tribes: Desmodieae, Indigofereae, Loteae, Phaseoleae, Psoraleeae, and Vicieae. All of the tribes are regarded as being evolutionarily advanced in both macro and micro characters and many, but not all, show specialized pollen characters. It is concluded that the granular interstitium is a derived structure in papilionoid legumes.     

FIELD NOTES ON SOME BIRDS FROM THE BOLIVIAN ANDES

The paper includes data from Bolivia on fourteen rare or little known species of Andean birds. The display of Gallinago stricklandii is described; the ecology and distribution of Uropsalis segmentata, Aeronautes andecolus, Leptasthenura yanacensis, Asthenes pudibunda, Xolmis rufipennis, Oreopsar bolivianus, Oreomanes fraseri, Idiopsar brachyurus , and Compsospiza garleppi are outlined; the feeding behaviour of Chalcostigma olivaceum is described; the nests of Leptasthenura yanacensis, Schizoeaca harterti, Ampelion rubrocristatus , and Phrygilus plebejus are described (those of the first three species apparently for the first time). The species of Furnariidae that are known to breed with incompletely pneumatized skull are listed.     

TAXONOMIC STUDIES OF SOME HYLID FROGS OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA

The taxonomic status of the Hylid frogs Hyla serrata Andersson and H. nannotis Andersson of Queensland, and H. eucnemis Lönnberg and H. obsoleta Lönnberg of New Guinea has been the subject of controversy, Loveridge (1935), Copland (1957), Moore (1961).
The author has examined the type specimens of the above species and all other available material in an attempt to clarify their taxonomic status. On the basis of this investigation of morphological variation, the following changes to currently recognized generic and specific names are proposed:
Hyla obsoleta Lönnberg = Nyctimystes obsoleta (Lönnberg),
Hyla rhacophorus Van Kampen = Hyla eucnemis Lönnberg,
Hyla serrata Andersson = Hyla eucnemis Lönnberg.     

Variation in Mentha arvensis L. (Labiatae). I. The North American populations

Most North American populations of Mentha arvensis differ from those in Europe in leaf and calyx characters, but the extremes of variation overlap. However the former have a diploid chromosome number of 96 and the latter 72. The North American populations are morphologically very variable and much of this variation is genotypic. However, none of it is discrete and, as it shows little geographic or ecological coherence, taxonomic recognition appears undesirable.
The following chemical races based on essential oil composition, occur in North America:
Type 1–high in pulegone, isomenthone and menthone.
Type 2–high in linalool, cfr-ocimene and trans-ocimene.
Type 3–high in cw-isopulegone and fnmi-isopulegone.
Type 4–high in cis- and trans-ocimene and in 1,8-cineol.
These four chemotypes are not correlated with any of the morphological variations. The recognition of chemical races is discussed and it is concluded that where possible they should be based on diagnostic components, rather than on quantitative differences or the mere presence or absence of given compounds. The literature relating to biosynthesis and essential oil composition in Mentha arvensis is reviewed.     

Some observations on the breeding, age structure, dispersion and habitat of populations of Macropus robustus and Macropus antilopinus (Marsupialia)

Differences in breeding, population structure, dispersion and habitat are described between various species and subspecies of wallaroo (Macropus robustus robustus; M. r. cervinus; M. r. alligatoris; M. r. erubescens; Macropus antilopinus; Macropus bernardus).
Pouch young of Macropus robustus erubescens in western New South Wales were born throughout the year, while in both M. r. alligatoris and M. antilopinus then Northern Territory, most pouch young found were born during March and April.
In the populations of wallaroos in western New South Wales and the Northern Territory where there had been no systematic shooting of wallaroos for many years, 11|X% of the animals were immature. In the New England district of New South Wales where regular shooting occurs, 46|X% of the animals were immature.
The habitat of M. r. alligatoris of the Northern Territory was very similar to that of M. erubescens in inland Australia, amongst rocky hills and gullies. M. antilopinus , which is sympatric with M. r. alligatoris in the Northern Territory, also occurred in the rocky hills, but it was also found in open savannah woodland in flat and gently undulating country.
M. r. erubescens and M. r. alligatoris were almost always seen alone or in pairs, while M. antilopinus often formed larger groups.     

The biology, ecology and functional aspects of the organs of feeding and digestion of the S.E. Asian mangrove bivalve, Enigmonia aenigmatica (Mollusca: Anomiacea)

Enigmonia aenigmatica (Holten 1803) is an anomiid bivalved mollusc highly adapted for life attached to the trunks, projecting prop roots and leaves of mangrove trees. It is a characteristic member of the S.E. Asian mangrove community.
It exists in four growth forms, or morphs determined by the nature of the surface on which settlement takes place. It is also orientated and positioned on the tree trunks of Avicennia and the prop roots of Rhizophora , in relation to the long axis of the tree and the direction of the current. Further aspects of the biology and ecology of Enigmonia are discussed.
Enigmonia is monomyarian and lies on its right shell valve. This has resulted in an asymmetry which is of especial significance with regard to an understanding of the functional morphology of the organs of feeding and digestion in particular. The eccentricities seen in Enigmonia have been compared with the adaptations found in other anomiids in particular and other bivalves in general.
The feeding and digestive cycle of Enigmonia has been described and found to be correlated with the rhythm of the tide; it is essentially similar to that described for some other littoral bivalves.
The adaptations and specializations of Enigmonia are discussed in relation to its life in the mangal.     

NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY AND ETHOLOGY OF THE NATAL ROBIN COSSYPHA NATALENSIS

A preference for bushy evergreen undergrowth determines both the local and the general distribution of Cossypha natalensis. The lack of such undergrowth makes equatorial rain-forests unsuitable. Tropical and subtropical evergreen forests provide excellent conditions from this point of view, and they are thus the main habitat type from which C. natalensis has secondarily extended into tropical and subtropical deciduous forests with evergreen undergrowth.
Adult birds remain in or close to their territories throughout the year. First-year birds undertake longer movements during the winter. Breeding territories are relatively small, from 2,500 up to (exceptionally) 10,000 square yards (2,100-8,400 sq. m).
Breeding begins in October. Both sexes build the nest, but only the female incubates. In southern Africa there is one brood a year, and the care of the offspring is protracted. The juvenile moult begins in the third and ends in the sixth month; adults have only one (post-breeding) moult a year.
The begging behaviour of the young is somewhat different from that of most other turdine birds, and is considered to be more primitive. The ontogeny of the adult displays is described as observed in young birds kept in captivity.
The development of vocal behaviour is described. Special attention is given to the different functional forms of the song, and to two of its special features, imitation and a tonal quality termed vox humana.     

Gedanken über ein system der Oxycocco-Sphagnetea Br.-Bl. & R. Tx. 1943

Zusammenfassung Viele Gründe sprechen für eine Trennung der Bult-Assoziationen Sphagnetum papillosi und Sphagnetum medii, die nach der Dominanz der Sphagnen ohne Schwierigkeiten möglich ist.Für die Sphagneta medii und die Sphagneta papillosi werden einige Gebietsassoziationen und Rassen beschrieben.Die alte Gliederung der Oxycocco-Sphagnetea von Schwickerath wird als richtig angesehen und erneut zur Annahme vorgeschlagen.

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Summary Many reasons speak in favour of a separation of the hummock-associations Sphagnetum papillosi and Sphagnetum medii, which is easily practicable according to the dominance of the Sphagna.Some territorial associations and races are described for the Sphagneta medii and the Sphagneta papillosi.The old classification of the Oxycocco-Sphagnetea by Schwickerath is regarded as correct and proposed to acceptance.

     

The biology and systematics of the genus Coincya Porta & Rigo ex Rouy (Cruciferae)

In this treatment, the genera Coincya (synonym: Hutera ) and Rhynchosinapis are regarded as one genus under the name Coincya which has nomenclatural priority. This study is based on data from morphology, population studies, cytology, ecology and reproductive biology reinforced by breeding experiments. Coincya is a west European genus comprising 14 taxa (including six species, five subspecies and three varieties).Eight new combinations are proposed and two species are excluded; R.nivalis is referable to the genus Brassica and R. Leplocarpa is probably referable to Erucastrum.
The chromosome number is either 2 n = 24 or 2 n = 48, which confirmed previous counts; C. Transtagana has not been counted. Breeding experiments were carried out with C. Longirostra, C.rupestris, C.monensis subsp. monensis , diploid and tetraploid races of subsp. recurvata var. recurvata , var. johnslonii , var. setigera , var. granatensis , subsp. hispida and subsp. puberula.
All taxa tested are outbreeding with a genetic self-incompatibility mechanism and are cross-compatible, suggesting that there has been no cytological differentiation between the diploid species in this study. The tetraploids formed semi-sterile triploids when crossed with diploids and although the chromosomes only formed bivalents and trivalents at meiosis it was postulated that the tetraploid was an autotetraploid of polytopic origin.
The evolution and differentiation of the genus and species are discussed.     

Preliminary classification and ecology of dry grassland communities on Ölands Stora Alvar (Sweden)

Four plant community types are described for Öland's Stora Alvar, the limestone plateau of South Öland and preliminary classified syntaxonomically:
(1) Crepis pumila – Allium alvarense ass. (2) Helianthemum oelandicum – Galium oelandicum ass. (3) Gypsophila fastigiata – Globularia vulgaris ass. and (4) Veronica spicata – Avenula pratensis ass. (with two subassociations, the Sedum reflexum and Galium boreale subass.). The ecology of these types is discussed with emphasis on soil depth, frost perturbation and the combined effects of summer drought and grazing intensity.
Various endemic taxa appear to be good character species for the community types described. The typical local ecology of some common species is discussed with the suggestion that they might have formed endemic ecotypes which should be further investigated.
The communities described are very rich in cryptogams. The floristic variation as expressed by the cryptogamic species composition shows largely the same pattern as that shown by the phanerogams.     

Contact zones between chromosome races of the common shrew Sorex araneus L. (insectivora, mammalia) at the margins of the Veps stage of the Valdai ice sheet

Cytogenetic analysis of the common shrew populations in the Valdai Hills revealed the presence of four distinct chromosome races (Western Dvina, Seliger, St. Petersburg, and Moscow). The geographic distribution of these races relative to the borders of the Late Valdai glaciation area is described and discussed. Five contact zones between chromosomal races were found, located directly on the ice-marginal formations of the Veps stage. Two races, Seliger and St. Petersburg, are located exclusively in the former ice sheet area. Attention is drawn to the fact that many of the races located in the last glacial area from the Valdai Hills through Scandinavia are characterized by endemic chromosomes (gi, gp, mo, or, etc.). It is concluded that the situation in the former glaciation area could favor the preservation of tundra or forest vegetation refuges and populations of some small mammal species.