Communication and collective action: language and the evolution of human cooperation

All social species face various “collective action problems” (CAPs) or “social dilemmas,” meaning problems in achieving cooperating when the best move from a selfish point of view yields an inferior collective outcome. Compared to most other species, humans are very good at solving these challenges, suggesting that something rather peculiar about human sociality facilitates collective action. This article proposes that language — the uniquely human faculty of symbolic communication — fundamentally alters the possibilities for collective action. I explore these issues using simple game-theoretic models and empirical evidence (both ethnographic and experimental). I review several standard mechanisms for the evolution of cooperation — mutualism, reciprocal altruism, indirect reciprocity and signaling — highlighting their limitations when it comes to explaining large-group cooperation, as well as the ways in which language helps overcome those limitations. Language facilitates complex coordination and is essential for establishing norms governing production efforts and distribution of collective goods that motivate people to cooperate voluntarily in large groups. Language also significantly lowers the cost of detecting and punishing “free riders,” thus greatly enhancing the scope and power of standard conditional reciprocity. In addition, symbolic communication encourages new forms of collectively beneficial displays and reputation management — what evolutionists often term “signaling” and “indirect reciprocity.” Thus, language reinforces existing forces that favor the evolution of cooperation, as well as creating new opportunities for collective action not available even to our closest primate relatives.     

Animal Suffering: Representations and the Act of Looking

Animal advocacy uses images of nonhuman suffering as a form of normative rhetoric and a method of persuasion. Although much attention has been given to various facets of the depiction of human suffering, images of animal suffering have, to a large extent, escaped closer scrutiny. This paper seeks to remedy the situation by investigating four issues—the risk of aesthetics, the risk of perpetuating moral wrongs, the problem of privacy, and compassion fatigue—as they relate to images of farmed animal suffering. The paper will argue that images of nonhuman suffering are in danger of being interpreted as a form of visual intrigue, and that they invite seldom-asked questions concerning the justification of the act of looking, together with the privacy of nonhuman animals. Moreover, it will be maintained that compassion fatigue commonly affects how these images are perceived. Making use of the views of Susan Sontag, J. M. Coetzee, and Stanley Cohen (among others), it will be argued that, in order to escape the problematic connotations and consequences of the aforementioned issues, a normative dimension pointing toward action must be explicated.     

Is the saccharide component of the insulin receptor involved in hormonal imprinting?

Hormonal imprinting takes place at the first interaction of a given hormone with the cell (the Tetrahymena in the present case) and accounts for a greater responsiveness to the hormone on re-exposure(s). The Tetrahymena is able to bind insulin and Concanavalin-A (Con-A) as well. Exposure to both ligands—simultaneously or in sequence—enhances the binding of both in the progeny generations. It follows that the lectin, which inhibits insulin binding by direct action, enhances rather than depresses the effect of insulin-induced imprinting.     

The pyrogenic effect of scarlet fever toxin

Glucocorticoids—hydrocortisone rather more effectively than cortisone—markedly inhibited the pyrogenic and lethal activity of scarlet fever toxin after only two days’ preadministration. Prolongation of preadministration of the steroid to seven days enhanced its protective effect, but the difference was not statistically significant. The systemic administration of glucocorticoids weakened or completely inhibited the development of a positive Dick test, only two days’ preadministration of cortisone being needed for inhibition. The findings are discussed with reference to the question of the nature of the action of scarlet fever toxin in the organism.     

Balancing and Scheduling Mixed-Model U-Shaped Production Lines

The production line considered in this paper is a U-shaped, mixed-model, asynchronous line where assembly and fabrication tasks are performed to produce a variety of different discrete products or models in a just-in-time (JIT) environment. Two important problems occur routinely with these lines. The first is the assignment of tasks to stations on the line—the line balancing problem—and the second is the selection of the sequence in which models will be produced—the model sequencing problem. The model sequence cannot be set independently of the line balance, because different models require different tasks and the same tasks have different completion times for different models, and, in the JIT environment, the model sequence cannot be set independently of the schedules of other lines and production facilities. JIT uses a pull rather than a push system of production control, which means that the model sequence at the U-shaped mixed-model final assembly line sets the schedules at the other production facilities. JIT requires these latter schedules to be “level” and this requirement imposes an additional constraint on the model sequence. The effect of these two conditions is to require that the line-balancing and model-sequencing problems be solved simultaneously. In this article, we model the joint problem and present a solution algorithm for solving instances of practical size.     

Antisense therapeutics in oncology: points to consider in their clinical evaluation

Novel therapeutics in oncology stem from a rational design of drugs targeting selective pathways that stimulate and maintain tumor cell growth. Many of these agents are cytostatic in action and also have a limited toxicity profile. However, some can be cytotoxic if they successfully modulate molecular pathways of apoptosis, such as bcl-2. This article discusses points to consider in the design of one class of cytostatic agents, antisense therapy. Our purpose is to stimulate designs that answer the question specifically with regard to proof-of-concept, and the concepts proposed should be viewed as ideas in development rather than firm recommendations.     

Whose autonomy,whose interests? A donor-focused analysis of surrogacy and egg donation from the global South

This article provides a donor-focused analysis of how transnational reproductive donation intersects with issues central to bodily autonomy of surrogates and egg donors from the global South. Little is known about the autonomy of surrogates and egg donors, especially among those from the global South. This article addresses this gap by examining two key issues on surrogacy and egg donation—conflict of interest and recruitment market. With these issues, this paper presents contexts of the reproductive body as a space of contestation for autonomy. Analysis reveals that bodily autonomy is not an absolute entitlement available for surrogates and egg donors from the global South. Having bodily autonomy is a privileged disposition rather than a universal liberty for reproductive donors. The discussions in this work encourage further examination to understand the multi-layered experiences of reproductive donors from the global South, towards deeper interrogation of the processes of reproductive industry.     

The Environmental Impacts of Reuse: A Review

The fear that human consumption is causing climate change, biodiversity loss, and mineral scarcity has recently prompted interest in reuse because of the intuitive belief that it reduces new production and waste. The environmental impacts of reuse have, however, received little attention—the benefits typically assumed rather than understood—and consequently the overall effects remain unclear. In this article, we structure the current work on the topic, reviewing the potential benefits and pitfalls described in the literature and providing a framework for future research. Many products’ use‐phase energy requirements are decreasing. The relative importance of the embodied impacts from initial production is therefore growing and the prominence of reuse as an abatement strategy is likely to increase in the future. Many examples are found in the literature of beneficial reuse of standardized, unpowered products and components, and repairing an item is always found to be less energy intensive than new production. However, reusing a product does not guarantee an environmental benefit. Attention must be paid to restoring and upgrading old product efficiencies, minimizing overspecification in the new application, and considering whether more efficient, new products exist that would be more suitable. Cheap, reused goods can allow many consumers access to products they would otherwise have been unable to afford. Though socially valuable, these sales, which may help minimize landfill in the short term, can represent additional consumption rather than a net environmental benefit compared to the status quo.     

Oral Behaviors of Beef Steers in Pen and Pasture Environments

This study observed the behavioral characteristics of 122 steers in eight pens and 1,136 steers at six pastures. Nonhuman animals kept in pens performed less nutritive oral behaviors and more nonnutritive oral behaviors than animals kept at pasture. Although these could not be described as stereotypies, they did represent a replacement of nutritive oral behaviors by nonnutritive oral behaviors, rather than simply an increase in resting time. This could be indicative of a level of oral frustration. At pasture, there was a greater proportion of oral behaviors in animals with low pasture availability as compared to high availability, but this was an increase in nutritive oral behaviors rather than nonnutritive oral behaviors. Factors other than oral frustration—for example, rumen fill—probably drove this increase.     

Accelerated regeneration of the skeletal muscle in RNF13-knockout mice is mediated by macrophage-secreted IL-4/IL-6

RING finger protein 13 (RNF13) is a newly identified E3 ligase reported to be functionally significant in the regulation of cancer development, muscle cell growth, and neuronal development. In this study, the function of RNF13 in cardiotoxin-induced skeletal muscle regeneration was investigated using RNF13-knockout mice. RNF13^-/- mice exhibited enhanced muscle regeneration —characterized by accelerated satellite cell proliferation —compared with wild-type mice. The expression of RNF13 was remarkably induced in macrophages rather than in the satellite cells of wild-type mice at the very early stage of muscle damage. This result indicated that inflammatory cells are important in RNF13-mediated satellite cell functions. The cytokine levels in skeletal muscles were further analyzed and showed that RNF13^-/- mice produced greater amounts of various cytokines than wild-type mice. Among these, IL-4 and IL-6 levels significantly increased in RNF13^-/- mice. The accelerated muscle regeneration phenotype was abrogated by inhibiting IL-4/IL-6 action in RNF13^-/- mice with blocking antibodies. These results indicate that RNF13 deficiency promotes skeletal muscle regeneration via the effects on satellite cell niche mediated by IL-4 and IL-6.     

Euglena: The Photoreceptor System for Phototaxis*

SYNOPSIS. The photoreceptor structures (eyespot-paraflagellar body-flagellum) for Euglena phototaxis were investigated by electron microscopy. The paraflagellar body—the photoreceptor—is a highly ordered crystalline lamellar structure. Optical diffraction of the electron micrographs and resulting filtered images of the paraflagellar body suggest that it is formed of rods in a helical arrangement. The action spectra for phototaxis, the in situ spectrum by microspectrophotometry of the paraflagellar body, and flavin analysis of the organism indicate that the photoreceptor molecule is a flavoprotein. The phototaxis action spectrum is similar to the spectrum for O₂ evolution and implies that similar molecules participate in the photo-processes. As a result, a photochemical scheme is suggested in which a photo-excited flavin and a cytochrome participate in the photoprocess. The photochemistry and photoreceptor structures for Euglena phototaxis are likened to a photoneuro sensory cell.     

An iterative procedure to estimate muscle lines of action in vivo

A method is described to estimate the line of action of muscles in the three-dimensional space from serial images of parallel muscle sections obtained in vivo by means of CT or MRI scanning. The external shape of a muscle, reconstructed from the series of parallel sections, is mathematically divided into a series of imaginary slices directed arbitrarily in the three-dimensional space. The line of action is estimated initially as a regression line through the centroids of these mathematical slices. A new series of mathematical slices is constructed perpendicular to the regression line and a new estimate of the line of action is obtained from their centroids. This procedure is repeated until the estimated line of action is perpendicular to the mathematical slices; it can then be considered as a reliable estimate of the line of action. The accuracy of the method has been tested for various reconstruction parameters and muscle shapes. The results of these tests show that the accuracy is relatively independent of the direction in which the sectional images have been made and that, except for relatively short and thick muscles, the estimated lines of action deviated less than about 2 degrees from the theoretical one. The presented method is a relatively simple mathematical technique which can be used easily for muscles reconstructed in vivo from routinely obtained sectional MRI or CT images.     

The binding ability of insulin-related peptides as the clue to the search for their functional role in phylogenesis. Introduction to the problem

The common plan of structure of the main peptides of the vertebrate insulin family—insulin itself, IGF-I, IGF-II, and relaxin—has distinct structural formations. Each of the peptides performs its characteristic function. However, overlapping of insulin and IGF-I actions and its stability in the vertebrate phylogenesis have formed the concept of their regulation of growth and metabolism as a function fixed in phylogenesis for a certain type of structures. At the same time, study of insulin-related peptides in invertebrates has revealed the wider spectrum, than in vertebrates, of biological effects; this indicated that the similarity of the total structure design is not sufficient for judging about their functional role. Functional possibilities of a regulatory peptide depend fundamentally on its capability for binding to the receptor realizing its biological action. However, the binding ability has a wider significance than merely transmission of biological signals. Thus, IGF-II when interacting with receptors realizing its biological effects also binds to the IGF-2 receptor limiting its action and, besides, to the binding proteins (BP) modulating its action. The entire cycle of interactions occurs in the body at different affinity levels. Meanwhile, insulin interacts neither with IGF-2 receptor nor with BP. In this case, specificity and sequence of interaction with each of receptors or with protein are due not to the general design of the peptide structure, but rather to structure of individual submolecular determinants—binding domains. The leading role in disclosure of composition and structure of these domains is played by the “mutant-ligand” approach evaluating affinity of modified analogs. To analyze role of structural elements of the binding domains, the author proposes the system of estimation of affinity of the studied analogs. The present work, alongside with consideration of methodical aspects of the forthcoming analysis, is an introduction to the problem of organization of the binding domains connected directly with functional role of peptides of the insulin type. The proposed analysis is due to necessity of specification of this organization both in one molecule and in different molecules with a similar plan of structure on the basis of not always unanimous literature data and of clarification of principles of structure of these domains.     

Authenticating Geographies and Temporalities: Representations of Chinese Rock in China

ABSTRACT

Since the mid-1980s the Chinese rock singer Cui Jian has stirred up the arguably tranquil waters of Chinese popular music. In his wake, a rock culture emerged in China, especially Beijing. Whereas earlier generations of Chinese rock were characterized by rather clearly rebellious poses, poses that resonate the spirit of the Great Cultural Debate that characterized Chinese culture over the 1980s, the more recent music scenes employ a wider range of visual tactics. Threading through various generations and scenes within Beijing rock culture, however, has been a quest for authenticity. In this article I will present an overview of the authenticating aspirations of Beijing rock culture. I will start off by sketching a brief history of Chinese rock, and argue that, compared to the Western claim to the origin—and therefore to the continual making—of rock, Chinese rock musicians must bear the burden of providing authenticating proof in order to avoid being labeled mere copycats.

Apart from the West versus Rest distinction, a second dichotomy that propels the politics of rock in China is Beijing rock versus pop from Hong Kong and Taiwan. Rock is constructed as the authentic voice of a new generation, whereas pop is interpreted as an overtly commercialized sound produced by the music industry. These dichotomies underlie the five authenticating tactics that I distinguish: representing what I call the rebellious, the ancient China, the communist China, the scenic, and, finally, the new China. This article will provide ample visual evidence of these authenticating tactics, and analyze critically the politics behind these tactics. I will in particular interrogate the insistence on articulations of time and place that prevail in (discourses on) Chinese rock culture and argue for a cultural studies approach that resists rather than reifies either time or place.     

A positive effect of flowers rather than eye images in a large-scale, cross-cultural dictator game

People often consider how their behaviour will be viewed by others, and may cooperate to avoid gaining a bad reputation. Sensitivity to reputation may be elicited by subtle social cues of being watched: previous studies have shown that people behave more cooperatively when they see images of eyes rather than control images. Here, we tested whether eye images enhance cooperation in a dictator game, using the online labour market Amazon Mechanical Turk (AMT). In contrast to our predictions and the results of most previous studies, dictators gave away more money when they saw images of flowers rather than eye images. Donations in response to eye images were not significantly different to donations under control treatments. Dictator donations varied significantly across cultures but there was no systematic variation in responses to different image types across cultures. Unlike most previous studies, players interacting via AMT may feel truly anonymous when making decisions and, as such, may not respond to subtle social cues of being watched. Nevertheless, dictators gave away similar amounts as in previous studies, so anonymity did not erase helpfulness. We suggest that eye images might only promote cooperative behaviour in relatively public settings and that people may ignore these cues when they know their behaviour is truly anonymous.     

The Animal Surfaces: The Gaping Mouth in Francis Bacon’s Work

Among the most popular motifs in Francis Bacon’s painting is the gaping mouth. In some works the expression appears to be a scream, while elsewhere the mouth is open, replete with upper and lower teeth, but beyond that it is unclear whether we are seeing a mouth that is screaming or making some other expression. This article conveys the importance of the mouth as a “lever” for prising apart the human. Through the open mouth Bacon exposes the human-animal and reduces the mouth—as an organ of speech, reason and humanity—to its primal and pre-linguistic function. In demonstrating this it will be argued that rather than focusing exclusively on the scream, more attention needs to be paid to the gaping mouth and its significance in Bacon’s ?uvre.     

Behavioral effects of GABA agonists in relation to anxiety and benzodiazepine action

A considerable body of biochemical and neurophysiological evidence implicates GABA in anxiety and in benzodiazepine action. The present article surveys the behavioral effects of GABA agonists and their interactions with drugs acting at the benzodiazepine receptor in animal anxiety paradigms. Certain GABA agonists, notably valproate, simulate many behavioral actions of benzodiazepines. Moreover, several behavioral studies of the interaction of GABA agonists with benzodiazepines support the hypothesis of a benzodiazepine receptor complex with one or more GABA, benzodiazepine and probably other binding sites. However, there are also a number of anomalous findings of GABA agonist action alone and in combination with benzodiazepines. It is argued that these paradoxical results can better be accounted for in terms of the receptor complex and the distribution of the drugs, rather than by suggesting that the anxiolytic actions of benzodiazepines are not mediated by GABA systems. The potential clinical usefulness of GABA agonists in anxiety is commented upon.     

Chromosome numbers in the algae: Phaeophyta II

L-systems provide a method for modelling seaweed branching patterns in terms of simple rules. These rules can be used to generate computer graphics images of an alga's basic architecture, which, of course, is often obscured by adventiltious growth in living plants. L-systems provide a mathematical abstraction that allows us to compare species by focusing on essential differences in their substitution rules rather than relying entirely on the visual appearance of branching patterns. Two species of red algae from closely related genera in the Dasyaceae—Dasya rigidula and Dasysiphonia concinna—are virtually identical in pseudolateral branching detail and appear to diverge solely in terms of pseudolateral position. L-systems models and their graphical representations are presented to demonstrate that the two-dimensional, alternate-distichous pattern of pseudolateral position for Dasysiphonia concinna can be derived in a straightforward way from that of the three-dimensional, spiralled pattern of Dasya rigidula. These models illustrate a case in which generic distinction is based upon an easily observable but relatively trivial feature, differences other than branching pattern being quite subtle.     

A sufficiency threshold is not a harm principle: A better alternative to best interests for overriding parental decisions

Douglas Diekema influentially argues that interference with parental decisions is not in fact guided by the child’s best interests, but rather by a more permissive standard, which he calls the harm principle. This article first seeks to clarify this alternative position and defend it against certain existing criticisms, before offering a new criticism and alternative. This ‘harm principle’ has been criticized for (i) lack of adequate moral grounding, and (ii) being as indeterminate as the best interest standard that it seeks to replace. I argue that these are not serious problems. I take Diekema’s negative point to be right—our actual standard for intervention is not literally the best interests of the child—but I disagree with his proposed replacement. First, Diekema’s proposed harm threshold should be more carefully distinguished from Mill’s harm principle. Second, there is no reason to assume that the standard for permissible intervention coincides with the threshold for harm (or serious harm). Thus, I propose that the best alternative to the best interests standard is not a harm principle, but rather a sufficiency threshold between adequate (or ‘good enough’) and inadequate (or ‘substandard’) parenting.