Microbes, warfare, religion, and human institutions

A significant number of practicing microbiologists are not aware of the historical impact of infectious agents on the development of human institutions. Microbes have played a profound role in warfare, religion, migration of populations, art, and in diplomacy. Boundaries of nations have changed as a result of microbial diseases. Infectious agents have terminated some kingdoms and elevated others. There is a need for microbiologists to have a historical perspective of some of the major ways in which a pathogen may influence civilized populations. Conditions may exist in contemporary society for a repeat of some of the kinds of plagues suffered by previous societies. The purpose of this paper is to review examples of situations where pathogenic microbes have forced societal modifications on centers of human population.     

The Impact of West African Trade on the Distribution of Chimpanzee and Elephant Populations (Guinea,Guinea-Bissau,Senegal, 19th–20th Century)

This article elaborates a relational historical geography of human, chimpanzee and elephant populations, working mainly from precolonial and early colonial (nineteenth and twentieth century) narratives by travellers to regions now corresponding to parts of Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Senegal. It then compares a global ‘West African trade’ model of human and animal population’s spatial distribution with elements of an ‘East African settlement colony’ model drawn from other historical research. This perspective balances mainstream evolutionary approaches to animal biogeography with the human history, ecology and the geopolitics of their habitats. Taking such historical processes into account helps to unravel contrastive spatial and temporal dynamics of large mammal populations and to raise new questions about the anthropogenic causes of present-day population distributions.     

Pyrogeography,historical ecology,and the human dimensions of fire regimes

In our 2011 synthesis (Bowman et al., Journal of Biogeography, 2011, 38 , 2223–2236), we argued for a holistic approach to human issues in fire science that we term ‘pyrogeography’. Coughlan & Petty (Journal of Biogeography, 2013, 40 , 1010–1012) critiqued our paper on the grounds that our ‘pyric phase’ model was built on outdated views of cultural development, claiming we developed it to be the unifying explanatory framework for all human–fire sciences. Rather, they suggest that ‘historical ecology’ could provide such a framework. We used the ‘pyric transition’ for multiple purposes but did not offer it as an exclusive explanatory framework for pyrogeography. Although ‘historical ecology’ is one of many useful approaches to studying human–fire relationships, scholars should also look to political and evolutionary ecology, ecosystems and complexity theories, as well as empirical generalizations to build an interdisciplinary fire science that incorporates human, ecological and biophysical dimensions of fire regimes.     

Blondes, lost and found: representations of genes, identity, and history

Research carried out during recent decades has revealed our genome not only to be a unique mine of information about health, disease and the human condition, but also about the origin and dispersal history of the species. In this context, the genome is simply an additional source of information about human history, epistemologically no different from other historical sources. However, media and public interpretation of genetic studies of human history are complicated by the wider connotations of genes as the determinants of hereditary features and identity. We discuss two examples of media and public fascination with the interrelated themes of history, identity and heredity, pointing out some implications of historical research using genetic data in the context of our own ongoing study of Inuit groups in Greenland and Victoria Island, Canada.     

Complex systems, evolution, and animal models

In this paper, we respond to arguments made concerning our position regarding animal models (Shelley, 2010) by briefly examining the fact that animals (human and nonhuman) are complex systems that have different evolutionary trajectories. This historical fact has implications for using animals as predictive models for human response to drugs and disease.     

Historical Changes in Marine Resources,Food-web Structure and Ecosystem Functioning in the Adriatic Sea,Mediterranean

The Mediterranean Sea has been strongly influenced by human activities for millennia. Although the environmental history of its surrounding terrestrial ecosystems has received considerable study, historical changes in its marine realm are less known. We used a multidisciplinary approach combining paleontological, archeological, historical, fisheries, and ecological data to reconstruct past changes in marine populations, habitats, and water quality in the Adriatic Sea. Then, we constructed binary food webs for different historical periods to analyze possible changes in food-web structure and functioning over time. Our results indicate that human activities have influenced marine resource abundance since at least Roman times and accelerated in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Today, 98% of traditional marine resources are depleted to less than 50% of former abundance, with large (>1 m) predators and consumers being most affected. With 37% of investigated species rare and 11% extirpated, diversity has shifted towards smaller, lower trophic-level species, further aggravated by more than 40 species invasions. Species providing habitat and filter functions have been reduced by 75%, contributing to the degradation of water quality and increased eutrophication. Increased exploitation and functional extinctions have altered and simplified food-web structure over time, especially by changing the proportions of top predators, intermediate consumers, and basal species. Moreover, simulations of species losses indicate that today’s ecosystems may be less robust to species extinctions than in the past. Our results illustrate the long-term and far-reaching consequences human activities can have on marine food webs and ecosystems.     

Rationality, biology and optimality*

A historical theory of rational norms claims that, if we are supposed to think rationally, this is because it is biologically normal for us to do so. The historical theorist is committed to the view that we are supposed to think rationally only if, in the past, adult humans sometimes thought rationally. I consider whether there is any plausible model of rational norms that can be adopted by the historical theorist that is compatible with the claim that adult human beings are subject to rational norms, given certain plausible empirical assumptions about our history and capabilities. I suggest that there is one such model: this model centres on the idea that a procedure is rational if it has been endorsed (or at least not rejected) by mechanisms that have the function to ensure that the subject learns to reason in a way that approaches a certain kind of optimality. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Land-use history affects understorey plant species distributions in a large temperate-forest complex,Denmark

In Europe, forests have been strongly influenced by human land-use for millennia. Here, we studied the importance of anthropogenic historical factors as determinants of understorey species distributions in a 967 ha Danish forest complex using 156 randomly placed 100-m² plots, 15 environmental, 9 spatial, and 5 historical variables, and principal components analysis (PCA), redundancy analysis (RDA) as well as indicator species analysis. The historical variables were status as ancient (1805 AD) high forest, reclaimed bogs, ≤100 m from Bronze Age burial mounds, or former conifer plantation, and stand age. The PCA results showed that the main gradients in species composition were strongly related to the explanatory variables. Forward variable selection and variation partitioning using RDA showed that although modern environment was the dominant driver of species composition, anthropogenic historical factors were also important. The pure historical variation fraction constituted 13% of the variation explained. The RDA results showed that ancient-forest status and, secondarily, reclaimed bog status were the only significant historical variables. Many typical forest interior species, with poor dispersal and a strong literature record as ancient-forest species, were still concentrated in areas that were high forest in 1805. Among the younger forests, there were clear floristic differences between those on reclaimed bogs and those not. Apparently remnant populations of wet-soil plants were still present in the reclaimed bog areas. Our results emphasize the importance of historical factors for understanding modern vegetation patterns in forested landscapes.     

Stone Age to recent land-use history at Pegrema, northern Lake Onega, Russian Karelia

The village of Pegrema in Karelia may be regarded as a Stone Age innovation centre in the large Lake Onega area. Two pollen and plant macrofossil diagrams are presented which represent the first contribution to the study of human impact in the area using anthropogenic pollen indicators. A continuous but sporadic human presence from the Mesolithic onwards is demonstrated. While there is no archaeological evidence relating to the period 4200–3000 B.P., the pollen data suggest continuous, though rather sparse human presence. The data do not support any natural catastrophes in Pegrema as has been suggested elsewhere. Cerealia pollen is recorded earlier than expected (c. 5000 B.P.=. In the Bronce Age and Iron Age, the settlement of the Zaonezhye peninsula is reflected by a slight increase in herb pollen representation, sporadic Cerealia pollen and several periods of regression in Picea. The long introductory period of agriculture to the area, as well as the similarities and discrepancies between different sources of evidence (palaeoecological, archaeological and historical) are discussed at some length. The start of land clearance for permanent cultivation in the profile Pegrema S was dated to the late 13^th century. The beginning of more intensive field cultivation in the 15^th century is clearly seen in the pollen succession at both localities. The fluctuation in anthropogenic indicators can be related to population density based on historical data. The village of Pegrema was depopulated in 1956 which is reflected in a distinct decline in settlement indicators. Received February 17 / Accepted May 19, 2000     

How microbial ancient DNA, found in association with human remains, can be interpreted

The analysis of the DNA of ancient micro-organisms in archaeological and palaeontological human remains can contribute to the understanding of issues as different as the spreading of a new disease, a mummification process or the effect of diets on historical human populations. The quest for this type of DNA, however, can represent a particularly demanding task. This is mainly due to the abundance and diffusion of bacteria, fungi, yeasts, algae and protozoans in the most diverse environments of the present-day biosphere and the resulting difficulty in distinguishing between ancient and modern DNA. Nevertheless, at least under some special circumstances, by using rigorous protocols, which include an archaeometric survey of the specimens and evaluation of the palaeoecological consistency of the results of DNA sequence analysis, glimpses of the composition of the original microbial flora (e.g. colonic flora) can be caught in ancient human remains. Potentials and pitfalls of this research field are illustrated by the results of research works performed on prehistoric, pre-Columbian and Renaissance human mummies.     

Introduction to Special Theme Section “Accounting for Climate Change: Measurement,Management, Morality,and Myth”

This special section considers contemporary efforts to account for climate change through four frames: measurement, management, morality and myth. Our introduction briefly outlines these perspectives and the relevant literature, asking: 1) How have techniques of measurement and quantification emerged from and contributed to the particular politics of the “Anthropocene”?; 2) How have our efforts to measure socioclimatic systems facilitated new techniques of socio-environmental management and, at times, worked to reshape the very systems they describe?; 3) How have accounting practices worked to both elucidate and obscure questions of morality, value, responsibility and justice?; and 4) How we might address the critique that climate science is a myth and improve understanding with greater incorporation of historical and cross cultural knowledge from human ecology, human geography and anthropology.     

Classification, disease, and diagnosis

Classification shapes medicine and guides its practice. Understanding classification must be part of the quest to better understand the social context and implications of diagnosis. Classifications are part of the human work that provides a foundation for the recognition and study of illness: deciding how the vast expanse of nature can be partitioned into meaningful chunks, stabilizing and structuring what is otherwise disordered. This article explores the aims of classification, their embodiment in medical diagnosis, and the historical traditions of medical classification. It provides a brief overview of the aims and principles of classification and their relevance to contemporary medicine. It also demonstrates how classifications operate as social framing devices that enable and disable communication, assert and refute authority, and are important items for sociological study.     

Preface: research at Liang Bua, Flores, Indonesia

Excavations at Liang Bua, Flores, Indonesia, have yielded evidence for an endemic human species, Homo floresiensis, a population that occupied the cave between ∼95-17 ka. This discovery has major implications for early hominin evolution and dispersal in Africa and Asia, attracting worldwide interest. This preface describes the rationale for the excavations in historical, geographical, and wider research contexts, as well as the methods used. It also introduces the other papers on aspects of Liang Bua research that feature in this edition of the Journal of Human Evolution.     

河北塞罕坝冬季黑琴鸡种群密度调查

2007年12月对河北塞罕坝地区的黑琴鸡(Lyrurus tetrix)冬季种群密度进行了专项集中调查.越冬期种群密度为3.26只/km2,与历史资料对比,该地区黑琴鸡种群密度呈明显下降趋势.这与该地区栖息地的质量恶化、人类活动日益加剧和偷捕偷猎活动有关.     

Therapeutic peptides: Historical perspectives,current development trends,and future directions

Peptide therapeutics have played a notable role in medical practice since the advent of insulin therapy in the 1920s. Over 60 peptide drugs are approved in the United States and other major markets, and peptides continue to enter clinical development at a steady pace. Peptide drug discovery has diversified beyond its traditional focus on endogenous human peptides to include a broader range of structures identified from other natural sources or through medicinal chemistry efforts. We maintain a comprehensive dataset on peptides that have entered human clinical studies that includes over 150 peptides in active development today. Here we provide an overview of the peptide therapeutic landscape, including historical perspectives, molecular characteristics, regulatory benchmarks, and a therapeutic area breakdown.     

Of mice and 'convicts': origin of the Australian house mouse, Mus musculus

The house mouse, Mus musculus, is one of the most ubiquitous invasive species worldwide and in Australia is particularly common and widespread, but where it originally came from is still unknown. Here we investigated this origin through a phylogeographic analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences (D-loop) comparing mouse populations from Australia with those from the likely regional source area in Western Europe. Our results agree with human historical associations, showing a strong link between Australia and the British Isles. This outcome is of intrinsic and applied interest and helps to validate the colonization history of mice as a proxy for human settlement history.     

Low historical rates of cuckoldry in a Western European human population traced by Y-chromosome and genealogical data

Recent evidence suggests that seeking out extra-pair paternity (EPP) can be a viable alternative reproductive strategy for both males and females in many pair-bonded species, including humans. Accurate data on EPP rates in humans, however, are scant and mostly restricted to extant populations. Here, we provide the first large-scale, unbiased genetic study of historical EPP rates in a Western European human population based on combining Y-chromosomal data to infer genetic patrilineages with genealogical and surname data, which reflect known historical presumed paternity. Using two independent methods, we estimate that over the last few centuries, EPP rates in Flanders (Belgium) were only around 1–2% per generation. This figure is substantially lower than the 8–30% per generation reported in some behavioural studies on historical EPP rates, but comparable with the rates reported by other genetic studies of contemporary Western European populations. These results suggest that human EPP rates have not changed substantially during the last 400 years in Flanders and imply that legal genealogies rarely differ from the biological ones. This result has significant implications for a diverse set of fields, including human population genetics, historical demography, forensic science and human sociobiology.     

Evidence for indigenous selection and distribution of the shea tree, Vitellaria paradoxa, and its potential significance to prevailing parkland savanna tree patterns in sub-Saharan Africa north of the equator

Aim Woody vegetation patterns in African savannas north of the equator are closely connected to human presence, but the distinctions between natural and anthropogenic landscapes have not been clear to many observers. Criteria for identifying savanna landscapes on a continuum of intensity of anthropic impact are explored. Methods A key savanna tree species, Vitellaria paradoxa (Sapotaceae), was used as model for evaluating anthropic impact. Fruits harvested from tree populations across the species range were analysed for variation in traits valued by indigenous peoples. A simple selection index was used to scale tree populations from a hypothetical wild state to a hypothetical domesticated state. Index values were compared with trait values along climate zone gradients and evaluated in the context of indigenous savanna management practices and historical species distribution reports. Results Trait values such as fruit size and shape, pulp sweetness, and kernel fat content show a significant influence of temperature and rainfall. At the same time, the mean values of groups of traits vary perpendicular to the general climatic zone gradient. Selection index values between Vitellaria populations vary up to sixfold, with highest values in central Burkina Faso. Comparison of present day Vitellaria distribution with historical range limits show range expansion by human migration. Main conclusions The prevalence of major economic tree species in the savannas of Africa north of the equator is a strong indicator of human involvement in tree dispersal. This conclusion is supported by paleobotanical evidence and by recent Vitellaria range expansion as a result of human migration. The presence of high mean values of several Vitellaria fruit traits in central Burkina Faso suggests that selection for desired characteristics has occurred. The impact of indigenous savanna peoples on woody species composition and spatial distribution is probably much greater than usually thought and is the result of a deliberate strategy of altering the landscape to provide needed human resources.     

Medicine in the age of " Ulysses ": James Joyce's portrait of life, medicine, and disease on a Dublin day a century ago

Over time, contemporary writing becomes part of the historical record. In medicine, it is an important learning tool, particularly for understanding the experience and context of disease and illness. Although a century has elapsed since the fictional events on a single day described in James Joyce's Ulysses, the work is still fresh with references and allusions to doctors, illnesses, and the human experience. Ulysses provides perspective on medical and social history and offers a biting commentary of continuing relevance to the doctor-patient relationship.