Powering popular conceptions: The !Kung in the Marshall family expedition films of the 1950s

The paper develops a theoretical framework for the study of ethnographic film out‐takes in relation to material that is included in released ethnographic film, in this case, the films by John Marshall on the Kalahari San. The significance of what is included in relation to that which is excluded is called the theory of structured absences. This theory is then applied to the study of the 700,000 feet of 16 mm out‐takes not used by Marshall in his released films on the Ju/'hoansi.

The difficulties of analysing archival film are discussed, and issues of representation in relation to exposed footage, released films, and the director's own theory of documentary, are critically examined. The anthropological significance of Marshall's filmic contribution on the Kalahari San is assessed.     

“Two kinds of bioscope”: Practical community concerns and ethnographic film in Namibia

A quote from a Namibian Ju/'hoan political leader introduces the topic of community concerns about the practical implications of various styles of ethnographic filmmaking. The main issues addressed include communication, leadership, and decision‐making processes internal to the community being filmed; development planning and self‐presentation in state and international contexts; community participation in design of, and remuneration from, film projects; images produced and their relevance to governmental and international funding; and dialogue within both the local and the anthropological communities on the consequences of filmic decisions. Examples from six film projects in Nyae Nyae, Namibia, over the last decade are used to illustrate how complex land rights, natural resource rights, development planning, and external political issues may be more (or less) effectively dealt with depending on community involvement, presentational choices and activist goals.     

Rereading the Gods Must be Crazy Films

Studies of Jamie Uys's Gods Must be Crazy films have tended to focus on his pseudo-ethnographic representation of “Bushmen,” from primarily Western perspectives, both anthropological and anti-apartheid. This study examines critically the wider corpus of Uys's feature films, especially those employing “Bushmen” characters, in terms of intertextual relations. The article offers the comments of many San viewers of the films and also conveys the perspective of Gao, the main Ju/'hoansi actor. Finally, the study examines responses from the anthropological community to the films.     

Book reviews

In Search of the San Paul Weinberg, 1997, In Search of the San. Text and Photographs by Paul Weinberg. Johannesburg: The Porcupine Press. 80pp. Notes on Pronunciation. “Introduction” by Riaan de Villiers.

Bush for the Bushman Perrott, John. Bush for the Bushman. Need “The Gods Must Be Crazy” Kalahari People Die? Greenville, PA.: Beaver Pond. 1992. Photographs.

Healing Makes our Hearts Happy Richard Katz, Megan Biesele, Verna St. Denis, Healing Makes our Hearts Happy: Spirituality and Transformation among the Kalahari Ju/'hoansi. Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions, 1997. 214 pp. US$29.95

Africa on Film Kenneth M. Cameron. Africa on Film: Beyond Black and White. New York: Continuum, 1994. 240 pp., photos, index, filmography, bibliography. ISBN: 0–8264–0658–0.

America's Dark Images of Africa In Darkest Hollywood: Cinema and Apartheid. Produced by Peter Davis and Daniel Riesenfeld. 1994. Two VHS videotapes, each 55 minutes. Distributed by Villon Films, 77 West 28th Avenue, Vancouver, BC, V5Y 2K7, Canada.

Davis, Peter. In Darkest Hollywood: Exploring the Jungles of Cinema's South Africa. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1996. 190 pp., illus., paperback.     

The state as a whiteman,the whiteman as a /’hun: personhood,recognition, and the politics of knowability in the Kalahari

The article is dedicated to the loving memory of !A|’xuni.

The Ju|’hoansi of east central Namibia sometimes refer to the state as a whiteman and to the whiteman as a /’hun (steenbok). In this article, I contextualize these naming practices by tracing the history of colonial encounters on the fringes of the Western Kalahari through a small-scale animist perspective. I then discuss what this means for the concept of ‘recognition’, which I treat as a two-way intersubjective process of making oneself un/knowable to others. I argue that the Ju|’hoansi have engaged in parallel processes of mis/recognition vis-à-vis their colonial Others. By failing to enter into reciprocal relations with the Ju|’hoansi, the whiteman and the state have remained outside of the Ju|’hoansi's social universe and have thus compromised their own personhood.     

The Lens of Science: Anthropometric Photography and the Chippewa, 1890–1920

ABSTRACT

Nineteenth-century anthropologists struggled to establish themselves as scientists in a cultural milieu of enthusiasm for “curiosities.” Because commercial photographers appropriated the “authenticity” of photographic realism, the need increased for ethnographic photographers to distinguish between such realism and the “scientific authority” of their own visual productions. Through a case study of anthropometric photography of the Chippewa, this article examines the tension between, on the one hand, ethnographers' exploitation of the technological and symbolic attributes of photography to promote the scientific and political goals of the discipline, and on the other hand, the influence and function of visual genres and visual allegories in conditioning and framing what viewers accepted as “real” and “true.”     

An interview with Henri Cartier‐Bresson

Henri Cartier‐Bresson (born Paris, 1908) is arguably the best‐known photographer of the Twentieth Century. He, along with Robert Capa and David Seymour, pioneered the medium of photo‐reportage using the 35mm camera. Cartier‐Bresson's theory of photography requires that the photographer be as inconspicuous as possible in order to capture the subject more‐or‐less unawares in a series of “decisive moments”. His idea that the camera is an “extension of the eye”, used to evoke a certain “truth”, is reminiscent of the Soviet filmmaker Dziga Vertov's theory of kinoki, the cine‐eye. In 1947 Cartier‐Bresson helped found the famed Magnum agency in Paris, with a view to freeing creative photographers from the exploitation of agents. Although he rarely grants an interview, recently Cartier‐Bresson gave the following interview to the French journalist Michel Guerrin.¹     

The credibility of movement‐writing

The author first defended the credibility of movement‐writing in Chapter 2, Section 3, of a B.Litt.¹ thesis entitled Social Anthropology and [the] Dance, [Oxford, U.K., 1972]. Seven theoretical criteria from Nelson Goodman's Languages of Art [1969] were used to illustrate to examiners who knew nothing about movement‐writing in any form that Laban's system was not merely a mnemonic device. The guts of the chapter are revived in the following essay because of long‐standing, still‐existing confusion about the relations between movement‐writing and research and between “notation” and “writing” with regard to human movement studies.     

Shame,reputation and Egypt's lovers: A controversy over the nation's image

This paper addresses aspects of contemporary Egyptian nationalism by focusing on reactions within Egypt to a BBC‐produced documentary dealing with the life of a lower class Cairene woman. In particular, it explores how the notions of honor, shame and reputation are central to the construction and expression of this nationalistic voice, and how the concern over “Egypt's image” involves a contest over who is to represent the nation. This article argues that the contemporary nationalistic voice, championed by the urban middle classes, expresses an ambivalent attitude to both “the West” and “the Egyptian people”, and that it necessarily involves the hiding and undermining of subordinate social groups.     

Comic woman,victim woman: Pushing gender and genre boundaries in popular Hindi Cinema

“Women's film” in Hollywood is associated both with the genre of melodrama, the “weepie”, and with female spectatorship. In the Indian context of popular Hindi cinema, first, genre analysis itself is a questionable line of inquiry since several genres, the melodrama, musical, gangster, or mystery, combine in a single film, known locally as the masala (spicy) film; and second, films are scarcely divided by a gendered viewership. Yet I identify “women's films” as a distinct category in Hindi cinema, emerging around the ‘70s. These women's films typically center on female protagonists, dramatize their victimization and vindication; by the ‘80s under a range of influences these films mutated into rape‐revenge narratives.

However, another strain emerged within the ‘70s’ “women's film,” which drew on cinema's rich visual iconographic tradition of the sight gag, promulgating the comedic/tomboy heroine figure. It favored laughing and mocking patriarchal structures rather than surrendering to them in tears. Focusing on Ramesh Sippy's Sita aur Gita [1972] emblematic of this trend I explore theoretical concerns about associating genres with gender. In keeping with recent poststructuralist theories about gender and media ‘consumption I show how the film destabilized clear‐cut gender identification and stood for a promising trend that was sadly undercut. Thus, while genre might still be a useful analytical tool for Hindi cinema, defining women's film as female‐centered narratives is a viable category as long as we appreciate the instability in gendered viewer identification.     

The gamification of elementary school biology: a case study on increasing understanding of plants

ABSTRACT

This study presents a new technique, the “Which plant am I?” game, which helps to increase pupils’ plant knowledge, while motivate them to become familiar with more plants. On the other hand pupils’ plant knowledge was tested in Serbia.

The “Which Plant Am I?“ game was tested with two groups of pupils (in average 11 years old). Pupils in the experimental group took part in outdoor classes and played the ”Which plant am I?” game. Pupils of the control group observed plants only in the classroom. This technique can deliver significant improvement in pupils’ knowledge about plants and motivate them through an active and playful learning process. This technique can be one possible solution of plant blindness.     

Traditional Glue,Adhesive and Poison Used for Composite Weapons by Ju/’hoan San in Nyae Nyae,Namibia. Implications for the Evolution of Hunting Equipment in Prehistory

Ju/’hoan hunters from Nyae Nyae, near Tsumkwe in Namibia, demonstrate the manufacture of three fixative pastes made from plant extracts, and poison made from grubs and plant extracts. Ammocharis coranica and Terminalia sericea produce simple glue. Ozoroa schinzii latex mixed with carbonized Aristeda adscensionis grass is a compound adhesive. Composite poison is made from Chrysomelid grub viscera mixed with salivary extracts of Acacia mellifera inner bark and the tuber sap of Asparagus exuvialis. In order to document potential variability in the chaîne opératoire, and to eliminate inherent biases associated with unique observations, we studied manufacturing processes in three separate Nyae Nyae villages. Although there are methodological similarities in the Nyae Nyae area, we observed a few differences in contemporary traditions of poison manufacture. For example, some hunters make powder from Asparagus exuvialis tuber sap by boiling, reducing, hardening and grinding it, while others simply use heated sap. The Ju/’hoan hunting kit provides insights for archaeologists, but we must exercise caution when looking for continuity between prehistoric and historical technical systems. Some traditions have been lost to modern hunters, while others are new. We should also expect variability in the Stone Age because of geographically restricted resources. Simple glue, compound adhesive, and poison recipes identified in the Stone Age have no modern equivalents. By about 60,000 years ago at Diepkloof, simple glue was used for hafting tools, but at similarly-aged Sibudu there are recipes that combine red ochre powder with plant and/or animal ingredients. At Border Cave, novel poisons and compound adhesives were used in the Early Later Stone Age. It is possible that the complexity that we record in the manufacture of fixative pastes and poison used by Ju/’hoan hunters represents a hafting system both similar to and different from that observed at the Stone Age sites of Diepkloof, Sibudu, and Border Cave.     

Bi‐modal sensitivity to monochromatic light by the mud snail Ilyanassa obsoleta †

Under laboratory conditions the mud snail Ilyanassa obsoleta exhibits a pronounced positive behavioral response to monochromatic light. The response spectrum for‐this positive phototaxis has maxima at 480 nm and 560–580 nm. The threshold intensities for this response are 2.06 x 10^‐7 /μW/cm² for 480 nm and 2.18 × 10^‐7 μW/cm² for 580 nm. These results are suggestive of Ilyanassa's possessing two visual pigments with different absorption maxima.     

Mosquitoes of Rarotonga,Cook Islands: A survey of breeding sites

Abstract

Two surveys of Rarotonga, Cook Islands (21°20^'S, 160°16^'W) were made to determine the mosquito fauna of the island, and to identify the habitats required for breeding by searching for larvae. The first survey was made during the “dry season” in May 2001, the second during the “wet season” in February 2002. The mosquito fauna comprised four species Culex (Culex) quinquefasciatus Say, Culex (Culex) annulirostris Skuse, Aedes (Stego‐myia) aegypti (Linnaeus) and Aedes (Stegomyia) polynesiensis Marks. Larvae of the Culex species were most often found in larger natural and artificial water bodies. The Aedes species bred in both natural and artificial containers of all sizes. Ae. polynesiensis was the most widespread species, using natural holes in all regions as well as artificial containers in the urban areas. Most larvae of Ae. aegypti were located in small artificial containers. The two Aedes species are the vectors of dengue fever on the island. Mosquito control during outbreaks should specifically target the artificial containers preferred by Aedes sp. for breeding habitats.     

Nitrate reduction in marine sediment: Pathways and interactions with iron and sulfur cycling

Abstract

In coastal marine sediments, the interactions between NO₃ ^? reduction and transformations of Fe and S compounds often occur in a strong gradient of electron activity ("redoxcline"). Denitrification activity is observed throughout the NC₃ ^?‐containing surface zone, although the reduction step from N₂O to N₂ can be inhibited by H₂S in the “redoxcline.”; Survival of denitrifiers is generally poor in NO₃ ^?‐free, reduced sediment; such populations are likely to employ Fe³⁺ reduction in their energy metabolism. At depth, the sediments often contain a larger capacity for “nitrate ammonification”; (dissimilatory NO₃ ^? reduction to NH₄ ⁺) than for denitrification. The “nitrate ammonification”; is found commonly among fermenting bacteria, although SO₄ ^2? reducers may also be involved. In situ activities observed in whole sediment cores indicate that “nitrate ammonification”; may account for as much as one‐third of the carbon oxidation in organic‐rich sediments. The control of partitioning between denitrification and “nitrate ammonification”; at low NO₃ ^? concentrations is poorly investigated, but the larger metabolic capacity of fermenting and S O₄ ^2?‐reducing baceria in relatively reduced sediment could be important. In addition to bacterial reduction, chemical NO₃ ^? reduction is possible where significant amounts of Fe²⁺ (or H₂S) accumulate in the “redoxcline.”;     

Visual processing of pictures

Word responses have been used to dedde whether pictures of expressive faces or postures portray truthful expressions. Previous investigators have assumed words are used only as symbols of “meaning”. They did not appreciate the use of words as symbols of “sorting”. If one viewer calls two photographs “angry” and another viewer calls the same two photographs “happy,” the viewers may disagree in their “meanings” but they agree in their ‘sortings” both agree each photograph portrays the same expression. Sorting groups reveal how the visual system processes photographic images.     

Phase control of circadian activity in the antelope ground squirrel

Abstract

Wheel‐running activity of forty antelope ground squirrels, Ammospermophilus leucurus, was monitored for several months in both an outdoor cage and in the laboratory. The squirrels demonstrated a highly diurnal pattern which persisted in “constant conditions.” After removal from the field the initial free‐running period was close to 24 hrs, but typically lengthened in a nearly linear fashion at least for the first few months. There was no evidence of any difference in this trend for squirrels, in D/D, L/L 100 lx, 250 lx or 1200 lx. Eventually, about 90 percent of the squirrels had periods longer than 24 hrs.

The synchronizing capacity of the natural photoperiod was used to “catch the free‐running rhythm” and thereby demonstrate a response curve. Synchronization occurred by a shortening of the period when the time of sunrise was between 125° and 0° (subjective night) and by a lengthening of the period when the time of sunrise was between 0° and 125° (subjective day).

To more thoroughly examine the underlying mechanisms of phase control, phase‐response curves based on sixty one light‐pulse experiments were constructed. Comparisons of curves based on 6‐hr and 15‐min pulses, showed that the integral action of light is important (i.e., the entire pulse is involved in phase shifting). It was found that light pulses not only affected the phase of the rhythm but also the phase. Large phase shifts were usually associated with decreases in free‐running period. Several hypotheses on the controlling mechanisms were advanced.     

In the Shadow of Hollywood Orientalism: Authentic East Indian Dancing

Jerome Mintz Retrospective: 1968–1986 The Shoemaker. 1978, black‐and‐white, 34 minutes. Pepe's Family. 1978, black‐and‐white, 41 minutes. Perico the Bowlmaker. 1978, black‐and‐white, 45 minutes. The Shepherd's Family. 1978, black‐and‐white, 22 minutes. All produced, directed, and edited by Jerome Mintz; Camera and Sound: Jerome Mintz; Narration: Russ Salmon and Charles Vitaliano. All in Spanish with English voice‐over. 16mm and ½″ VHS video. Distributor: Documentary Educational Resources, 101 Morse Street, Watertown, MA 02172, USA, (617–926–9519).

Carnaval de Pueblo. 1987, color, 58 minutes. Produced, directed, and edited by Jerome Mintz; Camera: Jerome Mintz; Assistant Camera and Sound: Ron Hess; Assistant Editors: Michael Frisino, Carla Mintz, Maria Sendra, and Susan Schwibs; Subtitles: Elaina Frabaschi. 16 mm and ½” VHS video. Distributor: Documentary Educational Resources, 101 Morse Street, Watertown, MA 02172, USA, (617–926–9519).

Romeria: Day of the Virgin. 1986, color, 54 minutes. Produced, directed, and edited by Jerome Mintz; Camera: Jerome Mintz; Sound: Aaron Mintz; Assistant editors: Carla Mintz and Michael Frisino. 16 mm and ½″ VHS video.

An Interview with Jerome Mintz Jerome Mintz is a professor of anthropology at Indiana University, the department from which he received his Ph.D. in 1961. His main areas of interest include ethnographic film, myth and folklore, peasant society, folk religion, revitalization movements, anarchism, and Hasidism. He has conducted extensive field work in Spain as well as with Hasidic Jews in New York. While in the field in Spain, Mintz produced a large body of 16mm film footage and taped interviews between 1968 and 1971. These materials were eventually edited to produce four black‐and‐white films focusing on individuals, their families, and social networks. More recently Mintz has produced two films, Romeria: Day of The Virgin, and Carnaval de Pueblo, which have received widespread attention over the past two years. These films are all discussed in the accompanying review.

My Town—Mio Paese Produced and directed by Katherine Gulla; Camera: In Italy, Peter Sturken, in Massachusetts, Brian Dowley and Frank Lane; Sound: In Italy, Vladimir Lozinski, in Massachusetts, Francis X. Coakley, Nancy Cohen, Margo Garrison, and Dan Jones; Editor: Dan McCabe. Original languages English and Italian, English narration, English subtitles. 1986, color, 26 minutes, ½”, ¾” video. Price: Sale: $330; Rental: $35. Distributor: University of California Extension Media Center, 2176 Shattuck Avenue, Berkeley, CA 94704, USA, (415–642–0460).

Ave Maria: The Story of the Fisherman's Feast Produced and directed by Beth Harrington; Camera: Nancy Moloney, Kathy Campbell, Dave Zeland, and Nick Wakefield, 1986, color, 24 minutes, ½″, ¾” video. Price: Sale: $320; Rental: $33. Distributor: University of California Extension Media Center, 2176 Shattuck Avenue, Berkeley, CA 94704, USA, (415–642–0460).

Sophia and Her People: Eventful Lives Produced by Peter Loizos with the Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation; Directed and edited by Peter Loizos; Camera: Andros Theodora. Original language Cypriot Greek with English subtitles. 1985, color and black‐and‐white, 34 minutes, ½”, ¾” NTSC, PAL video. Distributor: Peter Loizos, Department of Anthropology, London School of Economics, Houghton Street, London WC2A 2AE, U.K.

Warriors and Maidens: Gender Relations in a Cretan Mountain Village A film by Barry Machin. 1988, color, 51 minutes, ½″ NTSC and PAL video. Sale Price: $310. Original language Greek with English narration and subtitles. Photocopy of monograph is available for $100. Distributor: Meriwa Films, 43 Meriwa Street, Perth 6009, West Australia.

Bride Market of Imilchil Produced and directed by Christian Pierce and Steffen Pierce. Camera: Christian Pierce and Steffen Pierce; Sound: Daniel Hartnett; Editors: Tom Barber, Tom Shaker, Steven Rausch; Production Coordinator: Rebecca Willis; Translator: Mohammed Rdad. 1988, color, 58 minutes, ½” and ¾” video. Distributor: Pierce Productions, 56 Ridgemont Street, Allston, MA 02134, USA, (617–254–0821).

The Kayapó “The Kayapó” (Granada Television's Disappearing World Series). Produced and directed by Michael Beckham. Executive Producer: Rod Caird; Camera: Mike Blakeley; Sound: David Woods; Editor: Paul Griffiths‐Davies; Anthropologist: Terence Turner; Research: Peter Connors; Film Dubbing: John Whitworth; Graphic Design: Valerie Pye. 1987, color, 52 minutes, 35mm. Distributor: Granada Television of England, 36 Golden Square, London W1R 4AH, UK and 1221 Avenue of the Americas, Suite 3468, New York, NY 10020, USA. “The Golden Curse of the Kayapó.” National Geographic Explorer Series. 1988. “Without Borders”. Segment on the Kayapó Indians of Brazil. Turner Broadcasting Systems. 1988. “Os Kayapós Descobrem as Barragens”. Produced and directed by Centro Ecumenico de Documentação (CEDI) and the Kayapó of Gorotire. Camera: Paiakan Kayapó. 1988, color, 120 minutes, ½″ video. Portuguese and Kayapó. Distributor: CEDI, São Paulo, S.P., Brazil.

Consider Anything, Only Don't Cry Produced, directed, and edited by Helen De Michiel; Sound: Vernon E. Norwood. 1987, 22:05 minutes, color, ½” video. Distributor: Intermedia Arts, 425 Ontario Street, SE, Minneapolis, MN 55414, USA, (612–627–4444).

A Song of Air Written, directed, and edited by Merilee Bennett; Production assistance: Australian Film Commission. 1987, 28 minutes, color, black‐and‐white, ½″ NTSC video, narration in English. Distributor: Australian Film Commission, 9229 W. Sunset Boulevard, #6515, Beverly Hills, CA, USA, (213–275–7074).

Marriage, migration and money: Mira Nair's cinema of displacement

So Far from India Produced and Directed by Mira Nair. Camera: Mitch Epstein. Sound: Alexander Griswold. Editor: Ann Schaetzel. 16mm, ½″ video. English subtitles. Distributed by Filmmaker's Library, 124 E. 40th Street, New York, NY 10016, USA, (212–808–4980). Film Price: Sale $750; Rental $75. Video Price: Sale $400.

India Cabaret Produced and Directed by Mira Nair. Camera: Mitch Epstein. Sound: Alexander Griswold. Editing: Barry Alexander Brown. 1985.16mm, ½” video, color, 60 minutes. English subtitles. Distributed by Filmmaker's Library, 124 E. 40th Street, New York, NY 10016, USA, (212–808–4980). Film Price: Sale $850; rental $85. Video Price: Sale $500.

Salaam Bombay! Produced and Directed by Mira Nair. Camera: S. Sissel. Editing: Barry Alexander Brown. Story: Mira Nair and Soom Taraporevala. Screenplay: Soom Taraporevala. 1988, 16mm, 35mm, color, 90 minutes. Distributed by Cinecom, Inc., New York.     

Resolution of 1‐n‐Butyl‐3‐Methyl‐3‐Phospholene 1‐Oxide With TADDOL Derivatives and Calcium Salts of O,O'‐Dibenzoyl‐(2R,3R)‐ or O,O'‐di‐p‐Toluoyl‐(2R,3R)‐tartaric Acid

The resolution methods applying (?)‐(4R,5R)‐4,5‐bis(diphenylhydroxymethyl)‐2,2‐dimethyldioxolane (“TADDOL”), (?)‐(2R,3R)‐α,α,α',α'‐tetraphenyl‐1,4‐dioxaspiro[4.5]decan‐2,3‐dimethanol (“spiro‐TADDOL”), as well as the acidic and neutral Ca²⁺ salts of (?)‐O,O'‐dibenzoyl‐ and (?)‐O,O'‐di‐p‐toluoyl‐(2R,3R)‐tartaric acid were extended for the preparation of 1‐n‐butyl‐3‐methyl‐3‐phospholene 1‐oxide in optically active form. In one case, the intermediate diastereomeric complex could be identified by single‐crystal X‐ray analysis. The absolute P‐configuration of the enantiomers of the phospholene oxide was also determined by comparing the experimentally obtained and calculated CD spectra. Chirality 26:174–182, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Measurement of the apparent diffusion coefficient of N‐butane in soil

Measurements of in‐soil diffusion coefficients and the application of an appropriate diffusional model can allow for a more accurate prediction of soil gas concentrations and movement to locate subterranean contamination of volatile materials. The present study was undertaken to measure and evaluate the “apparent in‐soil diffusion coefficient”; for n‐butane through soil columns under non‐steady‐state conditions. The term “apparent in‐soil diffusion coefficient”; refers to a numerical coefficient that primarily describes the movement of the material by diffusion but also contains effects due to other mechanisms (e.g., adsorption and solubility).

Six test columns were evaluated at three soil porosity levels ranging from 0.30 to 0.43 and at two column temperature conditions, nominally 18°C and 7°C. Soil columns measured 25.4 cm in diameter by 84 cm in height and contained a moist sand/silt/clay mixture. The numerical range for the apparent in‐soil diffusion coefficients for n‐butane was 0.447 × 10^‐3cm²/s to 0.561 × 10^‐3cm²/s. The lower coefficient values were associated with lower soil porosity levels and cooler column conditions.