Cultural resilience through change: Finding the theme for tales from Arab Detroit

In this essay, I will discuss issues that guided me throughout the making of the documentary video, Tales From Arab Detroit. (1) Problems of re‐presentation of individuals from an Arab American community of great diversity, with reference to race/ethnicity, social values, class, age, religion, differences in national background and generational presence in the U.S. (2) Attempts to reconcile the divergent expectations of funders, co‐producer, sponsors, participants and audiences in producing this documentary. (3) How to effectively challenge racist notions of Arabs propagated in popular media and educational texts, and which have probably influenced audience preconceptions of the community.     

Picturing women,class, and community in Arab Detroit: The strange case of Eva Habib

This essay explores the on‐going struggle to reveal and conceal the image of Eva Habib, an Arab American woman who worked in a Detroit factory and was photographed in her coveralls circa 1925. Eva's image has been a source of controversy in Detroit's Arab community since it first became public in the 1980s. I chart the evolution of this controversy, examine the interests of the parties involved, and draw conclusions about how this controversial image simultaneously undermines and reinforces popular notions of women, work, and class among Arab Americans.     

From the delta to Detroit: Packaging a folk epic for a new folk

This paper provides a narrative account of the making of the video, Tales from Arab Detroit: Abu Zayd Comes to America. It focuses upon the original project which involved bringing Egyptian epic‐singers to Detroit to perform selections from the epic of the Banî Hilâl tribe and their hero, Abu Zayd, in September 1993. The paper offers a brief background to the epic tradition itself, an analysis of two of the Detroit performances, a critique of the portrayal of the singers found in the final version of the video, and concludes with a textual ethnographer's thoughts about ethnographic filmmaking.     

Becoming the image: Words of gold,talk television,and Ramadan nights on the little screen

Tarek ‘Allam is currently the most popular interview broadcaster in Egypt. An impromptu appearance last year on his widely‐watched program, “Word of Gold,” created instant celebrity for the author in Egypt, the Arab world, and among diaspora Arab communities that receive the Egyptian satellite channel. I suddenly became the image I study, simultaneously viewer and viewed, a participant in popular mass culture. The experience underscored the power of television to shape public culture, prompted deeper reflection on the resiliency of particular televised images, and emphasized the advantage of turning our gaze from the established texts of dramatic serials to the numerous “on‐the‐street” interview programs aired on Egyptian television.     

Walker Evans: Florida

Six Views of a Greek Village Everyday is not a Feast Day (1980, color, 110 minutes; video sale, $150) Thread of the Needle (1982, color, 22 minutes; video sale, $50) Let's Get Married! (1985, color, 35 minutes; video sale, $60) My Family and Me (1986, color, 65 minutes; video sale, $100) A Hard Life (1988, color, 55 minutes; video sale, $90) Charcoal‐Makers (1990, color, 30 minutes; video sale, $55) Filmmaker‐anthropologist: Colette Piault. All films available in 16mm, 1/2‐in. video. Distributed by Les Films du Quotidien, 5 rue des Saints‐Pères, 75006 Paris, France. Tel: 1–42 60 25 76; fax: 1–42 61 67 92); or Dr. Peter Allen, 98 Transit Street, Providence, R.I. 02906 (Tel: 401/274–2397; fax: 401/456–8379).

The Nehru Dynasty Life and Death of a Dynasty Produced by Anne and Robert Drew; narrated by Cliff Robertson. 1991, 90 minutes, color and black‐and‐white, 1/2” videotape, narration in English. Distributor: Direct Cinema Limited, P.O. Box 10003, Santa Monica, CA, 90410. Tel: (800)525–0000; Fax: (313)396–3233. Institutional sale, $195.00; rental $85.00.     

The Last of the Great (Foot-Slogging) Explorers: Lewis Cotlow and the Ethnographic Imaginary in Popular Travel Film

This essay focuses on the popular travel films and books of Lewis Cotlow (1898-1987), an American explorer, author, filmmaker, insurance broker and amateur ethnographer who made photographic expeditions to Africa, South America, New Guinea, and the Arctic from the 1930s to the 1950s. This essay aims to uncover the shared historical practices and narratives in travel film and ethnographic film, examining scientific films in light of popular forms of anthropological cinema. In particular, the author examines the construction of an ethnographic imaginary and modes of ethnographic realism in the feature-length color film Jungle Headhunters [1950], shot during Cotlow's various expeditions to the Amazon during the 1940s.     

‘Keeping silent’: the problem of citizenship for Lilian Thuram

Abstract

Drawing upon translations of the football player Lilian Thuram's critiques of French racism and immigration, as well as other English language sources on the condition of banlieue life in France, this essay explores the relationship between citizenship and representation. Rather than merely reading Thuram as an athlete, I situate him as a political figure. The essay reads Thuram philosophically: as a figure who is familiar with and thinks the French and European political through its philosophical history. It is argued that Thuram's critiques are inexplicable unless they are understood as a redress to the very philosophical core of European modernity. Instead of presuming an inevitable relationship between citizenship and representation, this essay seeks to understand how representation works in relation to questions of citizenship and the limits of citizenship in contemporary Europe for those who are defined as Berber, black or Arab.     

The use of poison eggs for the control of stoats

Abstract

Stoats (Mustela erminea) are an important predator of many forest bird species in New Zealand, and more effective methods for their control are being sought. Stoat control using Fenn traps has been shown to prevent predation on mohua (Mohoua ochrocephala), but this technique is labour‐intensive and costly to use for protection of large areas of habitat. We evaluated 1080 delivered in eggs as a poison for control of stoats. The lethal dose has been determined by captive and field trials, but attempts to implement a large‐scale control operation have given inconclusive results. To clarify the effectiveness of 1080 eggs as a control technique, we carried out further field trials with radio‐tagged stoats in the Makarora Valley. Twenty animals were monitored by radio tracking, and data loggers and video cameras recorded their visits to bait stations. The precise time an individual stoat ate a poison egg could be determined from data logger and video information, and its fate was followed. Sixteen of twenty stoats were killed by 1080 eggs, three died of other causes and one remained alive at the end of the trials.     

Anthropological films and the myth of scientific truths

This article describes, analyzes, and interprets various cultural influences on the representational drawings of young Navajo students, in order to understand their changing cultural viewpoint. The data and drawings were gathered from two elementary art classes in one Navajo public school in northeastern Arizona, as part of an ongoing study. This information is compared to anthropological data gathered on adult Navajo drawings nearly 30 years ago, as well as to some dominant theories on child art. Data reveal students are influenced by Navajo traditional images, classroom teachers’ versions of school art, popular art images, pan‐Indian influences, and peer copying. Results reveal the persistence of traditional nature imagery, the incorporation of similar schemas and color use with mainstream children, a keen ability to render realistic images and space, and the incorporation of those American things that the Navajo regard as “good for them.” Keen drawing abilities appear at a young age among the Navajo because of the high status of the arts, traditional education through observation and demonstration, peer imitation, and male drawing competition.     

Colonialism and ethnicity: A theory and comparative case study

This article explores Arab American "invisibility" as a central theme in the historical narrative of Arab immigrants and their descendants in North America. "Invisibility" is primarily addressed in terms of Arab Americans' paradoxical positioning within the US racial/ethnic classification system. The article argues that four central paradoxes shape Arab American identity. The first paradox is that Arab Americans are a complex, diverse community, but are represented as a monolith in popular North American media images. The second paradox is that Arab Americans are simultaneously racialized as whites and as non-whites. The third paradox is that Arab Americans are racialized according to religion (Islam) rather than biology (phenotype). The fourth paradox involves the intersection between religious forms of identity that Arab immigrants bring to the US and racial forms of identity that structure US society. Overall, the article claims that each paradox of Arab American identity reinforces the difficulties associated in classifying this population.     

Predators of Greater Sage‐Grouse nests identified by video monitoring

ABSTRACT Nest predation is the primary cause of nest failure for Greater Sage‐Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), but the identity of their nest predators is often uncertain. Confirming the identity of these predators may be useful in enhancing management strategies designed to increase nest success. From 2002 to 2005, we monitored 87 Greater Sage‐Grouse nests (camera, N= 55; no camera, N= 32) in northeastern Nevada and south‐central Idaho and identified predators at 17 nests, with Common Ravens (Corvus corax) preying on eggs at 10 nests and American badgers (Taxidea taxis) at seven. Rodents were frequently observed at grouse nests, but did not prey on grouse eggs. Because sign left by ravens and badgers was often indistinguishable following nest predation, identifying nest predators based on egg removal, the presence of egg shells, or other sign was not possible. Most predation occurred when females were on nests. Active nest defense by grouse was rare and always unsuccessful. Continuous video monitoring of Sage‐Grouse nests permitted unambiguous identification of nest predators. Additional monitoring studies could help improve our understanding of the causes of Sage‐Grouse nest failure in the face of land‐use changes in the Intermountain West.     

Spectacles of South Asia at the American circus, 1890–1940

This article examines how racial and gendered images of South Asia were played out in performance at the American circus around 1900. These representations reinforced the Anglo‐American construct of a racial hierarchy in which South Asians were depicted to be static, and unable to keep pace with the Anglo‐American “race”. American circus spectacles featuring Indian subjects glorified British imperialism and helped to popularize the common colonialist stereotype that a minority of English officials were needed to rule millions of Indians. The American circus, as the most popular form of American public entertainment in an era before movies and television, helped to form a constellation of racial and sexual stereotypes concerning South Asia which continue to this day.     

In the Shadow of Hollywood Orientalism: Authentic East Indian Dancing

Jerome Mintz Retrospective: 1968–1986 The Shoemaker. 1978, black‐and‐white, 34 minutes. Pepe's Family. 1978, black‐and‐white, 41 minutes. Perico the Bowlmaker. 1978, black‐and‐white, 45 minutes. The Shepherd's Family. 1978, black‐and‐white, 22 minutes. All produced, directed, and edited by Jerome Mintz; Camera and Sound: Jerome Mintz; Narration: Russ Salmon and Charles Vitaliano. All in Spanish with English voice‐over. 16mm and ½″ VHS video. Distributor: Documentary Educational Resources, 101 Morse Street, Watertown, MA 02172, USA, (617–926–9519).

Carnaval de Pueblo. 1987, color, 58 minutes. Produced, directed, and edited by Jerome Mintz; Camera: Jerome Mintz; Assistant Camera and Sound: Ron Hess; Assistant Editors: Michael Frisino, Carla Mintz, Maria Sendra, and Susan Schwibs; Subtitles: Elaina Frabaschi. 16 mm and ½” VHS video. Distributor: Documentary Educational Resources, 101 Morse Street, Watertown, MA 02172, USA, (617–926–9519).

Romeria: Day of the Virgin. 1986, color, 54 minutes. Produced, directed, and edited by Jerome Mintz; Camera: Jerome Mintz; Sound: Aaron Mintz; Assistant editors: Carla Mintz and Michael Frisino. 16 mm and ½″ VHS video.

An Interview with Jerome Mintz Jerome Mintz is a professor of anthropology at Indiana University, the department from which he received his Ph.D. in 1961. His main areas of interest include ethnographic film, myth and folklore, peasant society, folk religion, revitalization movements, anarchism, and Hasidism. He has conducted extensive field work in Spain as well as with Hasidic Jews in New York. While in the field in Spain, Mintz produced a large body of 16mm film footage and taped interviews between 1968 and 1971. These materials were eventually edited to produce four black‐and‐white films focusing on individuals, their families, and social networks. More recently Mintz has produced two films, Romeria: Day of The Virgin, and Carnaval de Pueblo, which have received widespread attention over the past two years. These films are all discussed in the accompanying review.

My Town—Mio Paese Produced and directed by Katherine Gulla; Camera: In Italy, Peter Sturken, in Massachusetts, Brian Dowley and Frank Lane; Sound: In Italy, Vladimir Lozinski, in Massachusetts, Francis X. Coakley, Nancy Cohen, Margo Garrison, and Dan Jones; Editor: Dan McCabe. Original languages English and Italian, English narration, English subtitles. 1986, color, 26 minutes, ½”, ¾” video. Price: Sale: $330; Rental: $35. Distributor: University of California Extension Media Center, 2176 Shattuck Avenue, Berkeley, CA 94704, USA, (415–642–0460).

Ave Maria: The Story of the Fisherman's Feast Produced and directed by Beth Harrington; Camera: Nancy Moloney, Kathy Campbell, Dave Zeland, and Nick Wakefield, 1986, color, 24 minutes, ½″, ¾” video. Price: Sale: $320; Rental: $33. Distributor: University of California Extension Media Center, 2176 Shattuck Avenue, Berkeley, CA 94704, USA, (415–642–0460).

Sophia and Her People: Eventful Lives Produced by Peter Loizos with the Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation; Directed and edited by Peter Loizos; Camera: Andros Theodora. Original language Cypriot Greek with English subtitles. 1985, color and black‐and‐white, 34 minutes, ½”, ¾” NTSC, PAL video. Distributor: Peter Loizos, Department of Anthropology, London School of Economics, Houghton Street, London WC2A 2AE, U.K.

Warriors and Maidens: Gender Relations in a Cretan Mountain Village A film by Barry Machin. 1988, color, 51 minutes, ½″ NTSC and PAL video. Sale Price: $310. Original language Greek with English narration and subtitles. Photocopy of monograph is available for $100. Distributor: Meriwa Films, 43 Meriwa Street, Perth 6009, West Australia.

Bride Market of Imilchil Produced and directed by Christian Pierce and Steffen Pierce. Camera: Christian Pierce and Steffen Pierce; Sound: Daniel Hartnett; Editors: Tom Barber, Tom Shaker, Steven Rausch; Production Coordinator: Rebecca Willis; Translator: Mohammed Rdad. 1988, color, 58 minutes, ½” and ¾” video. Distributor: Pierce Productions, 56 Ridgemont Street, Allston, MA 02134, USA, (617–254–0821).

The Kayapó “The Kayapó” (Granada Television's Disappearing World Series). Produced and directed by Michael Beckham. Executive Producer: Rod Caird; Camera: Mike Blakeley; Sound: David Woods; Editor: Paul Griffiths‐Davies; Anthropologist: Terence Turner; Research: Peter Connors; Film Dubbing: John Whitworth; Graphic Design: Valerie Pye. 1987, color, 52 minutes, 35mm. Distributor: Granada Television of England, 36 Golden Square, London W1R 4AH, UK and 1221 Avenue of the Americas, Suite 3468, New York, NY 10020, USA. “The Golden Curse of the Kayapó.” National Geographic Explorer Series. 1988. “Without Borders”. Segment on the Kayapó Indians of Brazil. Turner Broadcasting Systems. 1988. “Os Kayapós Descobrem as Barragens”. Produced and directed by Centro Ecumenico de Documentação (CEDI) and the Kayapó of Gorotire. Camera: Paiakan Kayapó. 1988, color, 120 minutes, ½″ video. Portuguese and Kayapó. Distributor: CEDI, São Paulo, S.P., Brazil.

Consider Anything, Only Don't Cry Produced, directed, and edited by Helen De Michiel; Sound: Vernon E. Norwood. 1987, 22:05 minutes, color, ½” video. Distributor: Intermedia Arts, 425 Ontario Street, SE, Minneapolis, MN 55414, USA, (612–627–4444).

A Song of Air Written, directed, and edited by Merilee Bennett; Production assistance: Australian Film Commission. 1987, 28 minutes, color, black‐and‐white, ½″ NTSC video, narration in English. Distributor: Australian Film Commission, 9229 W. Sunset Boulevard, #6515, Beverly Hills, CA, USA, (213–275–7074).

Marriage, migration and money: Mira Nair's cinema of displacement

So Far from India Produced and Directed by Mira Nair. Camera: Mitch Epstein. Sound: Alexander Griswold. Editor: Ann Schaetzel. 16mm, ½″ video. English subtitles. Distributed by Filmmaker's Library, 124 E. 40th Street, New York, NY 10016, USA, (212–808–4980). Film Price: Sale $750; Rental $75. Video Price: Sale $400.

India Cabaret Produced and Directed by Mira Nair. Camera: Mitch Epstein. Sound: Alexander Griswold. Editing: Barry Alexander Brown. 1985.16mm, ½” video, color, 60 minutes. English subtitles. Distributed by Filmmaker's Library, 124 E. 40th Street, New York, NY 10016, USA, (212–808–4980). Film Price: Sale $850; rental $85. Video Price: Sale $500.

Salaam Bombay! Produced and Directed by Mira Nair. Camera: S. Sissel. Editing: Barry Alexander Brown. Story: Mira Nair and Soom Taraporevala. Screenplay: Soom Taraporevala. 1988, 16mm, 35mm, color, 90 minutes. Distributed by Cinecom, Inc., New York.     

Singing on the wings! Male wing fanning performances affect female willingness to copulate in the aphid parasitoid Lysiphlebus testaceipes (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiinae)

Lysiphlebus testaceipes (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiinae) is a generalist endoparasitoid attacking more than 100 aphid species. In L. testaceipes, wing fanning is a main male courtship display evoked by a female‐borne sex pheromone. However, no information is available on the characteristics and behavioral role of male fanning during courtship in this parasitoid. Here, the courtship behavior of a wild strain of L. testaceipes was quantified and the male wing fanning performances were analyzed through high‐speed video recordings and examined in relation to mating success. Courtship sequence of wild L. testaceipes did not substantially differ from that previously reported for other populations mass reared on aphids. We observed that the male courtship duration did not affect mating success. However, video analysis revealed that the males producing high‐frequency fanning signals achieved higher mating success over those that display low‐frequency fanning. Wing fanning before successful and unsuccessful courtship differed in amplitude of wing movements and alignment toward the mate, highlighting that frontal courtship positively influence the female mating decisions. This study increases knowledge on sexual behavior in a key parasitoid of aphids, highlighting the importance of wing fanning among the range of sensory modalities used in the sexual communication of L. testaceipes. From a practical point of view, this information is useful in L. testaceipes‐based biocontrol strategies, since it can help to establish parameters for quality checking of mass‐reared wasps over time.     

The Influence of Physical Activity,Socioeconomic Status,and Ethnicity on the Weight Status of Adolescents

Objective: This study examined the effects of physical activity, television viewing, video game play, socioeconomic status (SES), and ethnicity on body mass index (BMI). Research Methods and Procedures: The sample was 2389 adolescents, 10 to 16 years of age (12.7 ± 1.0 years); 1240 (52%) females and 1149 (48%) males; 77% white and 23% African American; from rural (77%) and urban (23%) settings. BMI and skinfolds were directly assessed. All other data were obtained from questionnaires. Results: Watching television on non‐school days was related to being overweight (p < 0.005). However, when BMI analyses were adjusted for ethnicity and SES, there were no significant effects of television viewing on BMI (p > 0.061). Increased hours of video game play enhanced the risk of being overweight for both genders when analyses were adjusted for ethnicity and SES (p < 0.019). In males, participation in as little as one high‐intensity physical activity 3 to 5 days a week decreased the ethnic‐ and SES‐adjusted relative risk of being overweight (RR = 0.646; CI: 0.427 to 0.977). For females, the ethnic‐ and SES‐adjusted relative risk for being overweight was not significantly altered by physical activity. The logistic analyses further indicated the influence of low SES and African American ethnicity overshadowed any direct effect of television or videos. Discussion: Because weight status of male adolescents appears to be more related to exercise habits than to television or video game habits, increased participation in high‐intensity exercise appears to be important. For females, neither videos nor exercise habits appear to be related to risk of being overweight. However, ethnicity and SES may be important factors that can influence body weight status, while television viewing may be of some importance. Thus, programs to reduce obesity in female adolescent should focus their efforts in lower SES communities.     

Phytochemical fingerprinting to thwart black cohosh adulteration: a 15 Actaea species analysis

Introduction – The popular use of black cohosh products (Actaea racemosa L., syn. Cimicifuga racemosa L.) is growing as the demand for alternatives to estrogen therapy has increased. Critical to safe use is the assurance of unadulterated, high‐quality products. Questions have been raised about the safety of black cohosh due to cases of liver toxicity in patients who reported taking it; subsequent evaluation found some products to be adulterated with other related herbal species. Correct plant species identification is a key first step for good manufacturing practices of safe black cohosh products. Objectives – To develop analytical methods which distinguish black cohosh from other species (American and Asian) of Actaea increasingly found as adulterants in commercially available black cohosh products. Material and methods – Fifteen species of Actaea were collected from North America and Asia, and the phytochemical fingerprints of these samples were established using HPLC‐PDA and LC‐MS techniques. Results – The HPLC and LC‐MS fingerprints for polyphenols and triterpene glycosides revealed distinct patterns that make black cohosh clearly distinguishable from most other species of Actaea. Two marker compounds, cimifugin and cimiracemoside F, were found to be important to distinguish black cohosh from most Asian species of Actaea. Formononetin was not found from either Asian or American species of Actaea. Conclusions – Phytochemical fingerprinting is a practical, reliable method for authenticating black cohosh and distinguishing it from other species of Actaea increasingly found as adulterants in commercially available black cohosh products. This should facilitate the continued development of high‐quality, unadulterated black cohosh products. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Climatic control of germination in the genus Silene L

Background: Seed germination strategies depend on a number of factors such as climatic variables, habitat, life cycle, phylogenetic affiliation and morphological seed traits.

Aims: We present a novel evaluation of the ecological correlates of germination strategies focussing on plant populations drawn from a single genus and considering a number of relevant explanatory variables.

Methods: Temperature and light-controlled germination experiments were carried out on 21 seed accessions belonging to 13 closely related species of the genus Silene L. Accessions were selected to tightly control the phylogenetic effect and give broad ecological and geographic coverage of the genus in Europe, with three North American and Macaronesian outgroups from climatically extreme environments. We used principal component analysis and correlation analyses to identify the correlation structure of germination traits and include multiple explanatory variables.

Results: Three germination strategies were shown to be related to climatic control. (1) Seeds from arid regions with hot, dry summers germinated optimally at cool temperatures associated with the rainfall period under field conditions, whereas (2) the benefit of cold stratification was more marked in provenances characterised by cold, dry winters, and (3) seeds from mild climates preferred warm temperatures for germination. Moreover, (4) biennial populations of disturbed habitats showed synchronised and rapid seed germination over a wide thermal window. In agreement with previous findings, (5) habitat-related syndromes were observed only for wetland populations. Correlations with seed mass were significant when related to summer precipitation, but weak or absent in relation to germination traits, indicating that, though influenced by the local climate, seed mass is a poor predictor of germination strategies.

Conclusions: These results suggest that whilst habitat and life cycle might shape germination patterns to a certain extent, long-term climatic differences play a substantial role in selecting specific germination traits and strategies.     

Relationships among companies of militia in the colony of New York in 1760 estimated by an analysis of their surnames

Abstract

Surname, analysis, a technique to estimate genetic relatedness, is applied here to differences within and between eight militia companies (N=782) mustered for New York Colony in 1760. Universal service laws of the time imply that militias are unbiased community samples. Colonial American populations are of interest due to their heterogeneous migrant origins, balanced by effects of large kin groups. The surname of each militiaman was checked for identity to that of all others within and between the eight companies. Assuming surnames derive from common ancestry, fractions of name identity index relatedness. Within‐company relatedness is high, below only that found in genetic isolates, probably due to enlistments together of kinsmen. Between‐company relatedness is the lowest yet recorded, apparently because of the diverse origins of these populations.     

Estimating and accounting for genotyping errors in RAD‐seq experiments

In non‐model organisms, evolutionary questions are frequently addressed using reduced representation sequencing techniques due to their low cost, ease of use, and because they do not require genomic resources such as a reference genome. However, evidence is accumulating that such techniques may be affected by specific biases, questioning the accuracy of obtained genotypes, and as a consequence, their usefulness in evolutionary studies. Here, we introduce three strategies to estimate genotyping error rates from such data: through the comparison to high quality genotypes obtained with a different technique, from individual replicates, or from a population sample when assuming Hardy‐Weinberg equilibrium. Applying these strategies to data obtained with Restriction site Associated DNA sequencing (RAD‐seq), arguably the most popular reduced representation sequencing technique, revealed per‐allele genotyping error rates that were much higher than sequencing error rates, particularly at heterozygous sites that were wrongly inferred as homozygous. As we exemplify through the inference of genome‐wide and local ancestry of well characterized hybrids of two Eurasian poplar (Populus) species, such high error rates may lead to wrong biological conclusions. By properly accounting for these error rates in downstream analyses, either by incorporating genotyping errors directly or by recalibrating genotype likelihoods, we were nevertheless able to use the RAD‐seq data to support biologically meaningful and robust inferences of ancestry among Populus hybrids. Based on these findings, we strongly recommend carefully assessing genotyping error rates in reduced representation sequencing experiments, and to properly account for these in downstream analyses, for instance using the tools presented here.     

Mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals hidden genetic diversity in captive populations of the threatened American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) in Colombia

Identification of units within species worthy of separate management consideration is an important area within conservation. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) surveys can potentially contribute to this by identifying phylogenetic and population structure below the species level. The American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) is broadly distributed throughout the Neotropics. Its numbers have been reduced severely with the species threatened throughout much of its distribution. In Colombia, the release of individuals from commercial captive populations has emerged as a possible conservation strategy that could contribute to species recovery. However, no studies have addressed levels of genetic differentiation or diversity within C. acutus in Colombia, thus complicating conservation and management decisions. Here, sequence variation was studied in mtDNA cytochrome b and cytochrome oxidase I gene sequences in three Colombian captive populations of C. acutus. Two distinct lineages were identified: C. acutus‐I, corresponding to haplotypes from Colombia and closely related Central American haplotypes; and C. acutus‐II, corresponding to all remaining haplotypes from Colombia. Comparison with findings from other studies indicates the presence of a single “northern” lineage (corresponding to C. acutus‐I) distributed from North America (southern Florida), through Central America and into northern South America. The absence of C. acutus‐II haplotypes from North and Central America indicates that the C. acutus‐II lineage probably represents a separate South American lineage. There appears to be sufficient divergence between lineages to suggest that they could represent two distinct evolutionary units. We suggest that this differentiation needs to be recognized for conservation purposes because it clearly contributes to the overall genetic diversity of the species. All Colombian captive populations included in this study contained a mixture of representatives of both lineages. As such, we recommend against the use of captive‐bred individuals for conservation strategies until further genetic information is available.