Ultrastructure of the Mature Egg and Fertilization in the Fern Ceratopteris thafictroides

The ultrastructure of the mature egg and fertilization in the fern Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. were observed by transmission electron microscopy. The results revealed that the mature egg possesses an obvious egg membrane at the periphery of the egg. Furthermore, a fertilization pore was identified in the upper egg membrane of the mature egg. The structure of the pore is described for the first time. The fertilization experiment indicated that spermatozoids crowd into the cavity above the egg through the neck canal of the archegonium; however, only one of these can penetrate into the egg through the fertilization pore. Immediately on penetration of the spermatozoid, the egg begins to shrink. The volume of the fertilized egg decreases to almost one-half that of the unfertilized egg. As a result, the protoplasm of the fertilized egg becomes dense and opaque, which may lead to a situation where the organelles of both the egg and the fertilizing spermatozoid become indistinguishable. Simultaneously, abundant vesicles containing concentric membranes or opaque materials appear near the fertilization pore in the cytoplasm of the fertilized egg. These vesicles are considered to act as a barrier that prevents polyspermy. The present study provides a new insight into the ultrastructure of the mature egg and the cytological mechanism of fertilization in ferns.     

蕨受精作用的细胞学观察

为了阐明进化蕨类受精作用的特点和细胞学机制,该文采用透射电镜观察了蕨(Pteridium aquilinum var.latiusculum)受精作用的主要过程,观察结果显示:(1)蕨精子通过受精孔进入卵细胞,多数情况下,该精子的螺旋运动先在受精孔的下方产生一个受精腔,然后精子再与卵细胞质融合。(2)第一个精子的这种延迟的螺旋运动和因精子的钻入而引起的卵细胞固缩反应可能是阻止多精受精的重要因素。(3)卵发育时期产生的核外突在受精后仍能持续12 h,然后与核本体分离,逐渐在细胞质中消解。(4)合子通过其后方细胞质的液泡化而建立了水平极性,此后再进行细胞分裂。该研究观察到了进化蕨类受精作用过程中的一些新现象,包括产生受精腔、卵细胞固缩反应、核外突的命运以及合子极性建立等,这有助于理解蕨类植物的受精作用机制及有性生殖的演化。     

Formation of the Fertilization Pore during Oogenesis of the Fern Ceratopteris thalictroides

The development of the fertilization pore during oogenesis of the fern Ceratopteris thalictroides was followed using transmission electron microscopy. The newly formed egg is appressed closely to the adjacent cells. There are well-developed plasmodesmata between the egg and the ventral canal cell, but none between the egg and the jacket cells of the archegonium. During maturation, a separation cavity is formed around the egg. However, a pore region persistently connects the egg and the ventral canal cell. The extra egg membrane is formed by deposition of sheets of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), but no ER is deposited on the inner surface of the pore region. Thus, a fertilization pore, covered by a layer of plasmalemma, is formed. The ventral canal cell undoubtedly participates the formation of the fertilization pore, probably by absorbing the sheets of ER beneath the pore region. The functional significance of the ventral canal cell in formation of the fertilization pore is discussed. The features of the mature egg include that abundant concentric membranes and osmiophilic vesicles occur in the cytoplasm of the mature egg. The initial, round nucleus of the egg eventually becomes cup-shaped. This investigation gives some new insights about the cells participating oogenesis in ferns.     

The Sperm‐surface glycoprotein,SGP, is necessary for fertilization in the frog,Xenopus laevis

To identify a molecule involved in sperm‐egg plasma membrane binding at fertilization, a monoclonal antibody against a sperm‐surface glycoprotein (SGP) was obtained by immunizing mice with a sperm membrane fraction of the frog, Xenopus laevis, followed by screening of the culture supernatants based on their inhibitory activity against fertilization. The fertilization of both jellied and denuded eggs was effectively inhibited by pretreatment of sperm with intact anti‐SGP antibody as well as its Fab fragment, indicating that the antibody recognizes a molecule on the sperm's surface that is necessary for fertilization. On Western blots, the anti‐SGP antibody recognized large molecules, with molecular masses of 65–150 kDa and minor smaller molecules with masses of 20–28 kDa in the sperm membrane vesicles. SGP was distributed over nearly the entire surface of the sperm, probably as an integral membrane protein in close association with microfilaments. More membrane vesicles containing SGP bound to the surface were found in the animal hemisphere compared with the vegetal hemisphere in unfertilized eggs, but the vesicle‐binding was not observed in fertilized eggs. These results indicate that SGP mediates sperm‐egg membrane binding and is responsible for the establishment of fertilization in Xenopus.     

布雷菲德菌素A对蕨类植物卵发育的影响

以蕨类模式植物水蕨（Ceratopteris thalictroides L. Brongn.）为供试材料,设置不同质量浓度布雷菲德菌素A（BFA）分别处理10、20、30 h,采用光学显微镜和电镜对其树脂切片进行了观察;在此基础上,进行高碘-酸锡夫反应（PAS）和苏丹黑B反应。结果显示：对照组（未经BFA处理）发育卵中期的水蕨卵细胞较大,核仁呈圆形,细胞内高尔基体、内质网等细胞器完整;卵细胞和腹沟细胞间的受精孔清晰可见,二者间的分离腔内仅有极少量的泡状分泌物;卵膜较厚,有明显的层次。而处理组卵细胞的受精孔和卵膜不典型,由数量较多、大小不一的囊泡组成;受精孔下方有较多的线粒体和少量的高尔基体分布;高尔基体、内质网等膜性细胞器已断裂;细胞核上方和卵膜下方均分布着大量的嗜锇性囊泡,分离腔中充满了絮状物质。组织定位显示：对照组的分离腔较空,而处理组分离腔内充满着多糖类物质。综上所述,BFA会对卵细胞中的内质网和高尔基体等膜性细胞器造成破坏,影响分泌系统的正常功能,进而影响卵膜及受精孔的形成。本研究结果为进一步探索受精孔形成的机制以及蕨类植物生殖生物学的研究奠定了基础。     

A complex cortical reaction leads to formation of the fertilization envelope in the lobster,Homarus

We have examined the formation of the fertilization envelope in the lobsters Homarus americanus and H gammarus. Oocytes were fixed for electron microscopy either in the ovary or following extrusion from the gonopore. Mature ovarian oocytes are surrounded by a coat (envelope 1), which is comprised of small electron-dense granules and structures resembling “bottlebrushes.” At least part of this coat is synthesized by the follicle cells of the ovary. The cortex of ovarian oocytes contains four types of vesicles that we refer to as high-density vesicles (HDV), low-density vesicles (LDV), moderately dense vesicles (MDV), and ring vesicles (RV). Oocytes that were electrically extruded from the gonopore and fixed immediately had an envelope identical to that of ovarian oocytes. The cortex of gonopore oocytes contained the four types of vesicles found in ovarian oocytes. When unfertilized gonopore oocytes were allowed to incubate in sea water, the oocyte cortex appeared unaltered, but envelope 1 swelled and the bottlebrushes dispersed. When recently fertilized oocytes were fixed during natural spawning or following in-vitro fertilization, each type of vesicle was released in sequence from the cortex of the oocyte. The contents of the HDV and LDV appeared first in the perivitelline space, but their fate could not be determined at later times. The ring-shaped elements of the RV and the moderately electron-dense material of the MDV were released exocytotically somewhat later; these materials coalesced in the perivitelline space to form a new coat (envelope 2). Envelope 1 subsequently condensed to its original thickness and appeared firmly attached to envelope 2. Our results show that the fertilized lobster egg is surrounded by two discrete coats. The outer coat, which is formed in the ovary, undergoes a swelling/condensation cycle at spawning. The inner coat originates from a complex cortical reaction. Together these coats comprise the fertilization envelope of the lobster egg.     

Cross fertilization between sea urchin eggs and oyster spermatozoa

Interphylum crossing was examined between sea urchin eggs (Temnopleurus hardwicki) and oyster sperm (Crassostrea gigas). The eggs could receive the spermatozoa with or without cortical change. The fertilized eggs that elevated the fertilization envelope began their embryogenesis. Electron microscopy revealed that oyster spermatozoa underwent acrosome reaction on the sea urchin vitelline coat, and their acrosomal membrane fused with the egg plasma membrane after the appearance of an intricate membranous structure in the boundary between the acrosomal process and the egg cytoplasm. Oyster spermatozoa penetrated sometimes into sea urchin eggs without stimulating cortical granule discharge and consequently without fertilization envelope formation. The organelles derived from oyster spermatozoa seemed to be functionally inactive in the eggs whose cortex remained unchanged.     

樟子松受精作用和原胚的选择

樟子松发育成熟的雄配子体中的精子6月15日左右在颈卵器中上部与卵细胞结合,进行受精作用,其后,受精卵进行游离核分裂,形成8个子核时,开始形成细胞壁。它们再分裂1次,形成16个细胞的原胚。接着胚柄细胞层迅速生长、伸长,把下面的原胚送出颈卵器基部的细胞壁,进入胚乳中的溶蚀腔。原胚吸收溶蚀腔中的营养,生长发育。初期,胚的数目往往很多,但常常只有1个发育成熟。     

Post-fertilization changes in the chorion of winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus Walbaum, eggs observed with scanning electron microscopy

Little has been reported on the fine structure of the outer membrane of fish eggs during and after fertilization. When observed in the scanning electron microscope, the unfertilized egg of the winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus , is characterized by a crisscross pattern of depressions. These depressions radiate in all directions across the membrane surface creating a wrinkled appearance. After fertilization, the surface of the chorion becomes regular with a smoother appearance. The pores of the unfertilized egg are flush with the chorion surface, but become thickened and elevated after fertilization. While the chorion of the unfertilized egg is also smooth and uniformly textured, the chorion of the fertilized egg appears granular by first cleavage of the blastodisc. Although no apparent change occurs in the distance between pores after fertilization, statistically significant decreases in pore diameter occur 5 min after fertilization. These results are compared to those on egg membranes of other species of fish and invertebrates.     

Remodeling the sperm nucleus into a male pronucleus at fertilization

After fertilization, the dormant sperm nucleus undergoes morphological and biochemical transformations leading to the development of a functional nucleus, the male pronucleus. We have investigated the formation of the male pronucleus in a cell-free system consisting of permeabilized sea urchin sperm nuclei incubated in fertilized sea urchin egg extract containing membrane vesicles. The first sperm nuclear alteration in vitro is the disassembly of the sperm nuclear lamina as a result of lamin phosphorylation mediated by egg protein kinase C. The conical sperm nucleus decondenses into a spherical pronucleus in an ATP-dependent manner. The new nuclear envelope (NE) forms by ATP-dependent binding of vesicles to chromatin and GTP-dependent fusion of vesicles to each other. Three cytoplasmic membrane vesicle fractions with distinct biochemical, chromatin-binding and fusion properties, are required for pronuclear envelope assembly. Binding of each fraction to chromatin requires two detergent-resistant lipophilic structures at each pole of the sperm nucleus, which are incorporated into the NE by membrane fusion. Targeting of the bulk of NE vesicles to chromatin is mediated by a lamin B receptor (LBR)-like integral membrane protein. The last step of male pronuclear formation involves nuclear swelling. Nuclear swelling is associated with import of soluble lamin B into the nucleus and growth of the nuclear envelope by fusion of additional vesicles. In the nucleus, lamin B associates with LBR, which apparently tethers the NE to the lamina. Thus male pronuclear envelope assembly in vitro involves a highly ordered series of events. These events are similar to those characterizing the remodeling of somatic and embryonic nuclei transplanted into oocytes. The relationship between sperm nuclear remodeling at fertilization and nuclear remodeling after nuclear transplantation is discussed.     

Inhibition of sea urchin fertilization by jaspisin, a specific inhibitor of matrix metalloendoproteinase

Jaspisin, originally isolated from a marine sponge as an inhibitor of the hatching of the sea urchin (Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus) embryo, causes inhibition of sea urchin fertilization. Electron microscopic examination revealed that the acrosome reaction was induced in jaspisin-treated sperm when they were incubated with an intact egg. The acrosome-reacted sperm bound to the vitelline layer by the acrosomal material surrounding the acrosomal process. However, fusion of the acrosomal process and the egg plasma membrane failed to take place. Membrane potential changes were monitored using eggs preloaded with a membrane potential-sensitive fluorochrome, di-8-ANEPPS. Depolarization of the membrane potential, normally observed in the fertilized egg was not observed in the egg inseminated in the presence of jaspisin, indicating the absence of electrical continuity between the jaspisin-treated egg and sperm. Jaspisin inhibited the activities of matrix metallo-endoproteinase members but not of other types of proteinases. These results provide strong, albeit indirect, evidence that a matrix metallo-endoproteinase(s) is involved in the process of gamete fusion during sea urchin fertilization.     

Voltage-clamp study of the activation currents and fast block to polyspermy in the egg of Xenopus laevis

Voltage-clamped mature, jelly-intact Xenopus eggs were used to carefully examine the ionic currents crossing the plasma membrane before, during, and after fertilization. The bulk of the fertilization current was transient, of large amplitude, and reversed at the predicted Cl- reversal potential. However, the large amplitude fertilization current was preceded by a small, step-like increase in holding current. This small increase in holding current is referred to in this paper as Ion to acknowledge its qualitative similarity to the Ion current previously described in the sea urchin. It was observed in both fertilized and artificially activated eggs, and was found to be unaffected by 10 mm tetra-ethyl ammonium (TEA), a concentration found to block K+ currents in Rana pipiens. Current-voltage relationships are presented for the large fertilization potential, and show that the fertilization currents have a marked outward rectification and are voltage sensitive. These properties are in contrast to the total lack of rectification and slight voltage sensitivity seen before or after the fertilization currents. The time required for sperm to fertilize the egg was found to be voltage dependent with a relatively more depolarized voltage requiring a longer time for fertilization to occur. The percentage of eggs blocked with varying potential levels was determined and this information was fitted to a modified Boltzmann equation having a midpoint of -9 mV.     

The ultrastructure of the sea urchin egg cortex isolated before and after fertilization

The three-dimensional organization of cortices isolated from unfertilized and fertilized Strongylocentrotus purpuratus eggs has been examined by several techniques of light and electron microscopy. It has been found that when moderate shear forces are used, the isolated unfertilized egg cortex, in addition to cortical granules, contains acidic vesicles and an elaborate network of rough endoplasmic reticulum. This network provides a physical link between the cell surface and several kinds of cytoplasmic organelles (mitochondria, yolk granules, acidic vesicles) which are retained as part of the isolated cortex when gentle shear forces are applied. Furthermore a good visualization of actin in the cortex is provided: it is present as short filaments and mostly within the stubby microvilli of the egg. Finally, it has been noted that plaques exist on the inside face of the plasma membrane ready to assemble into typical clathrin coats that prefigure the burst of coated vesicle endocytosis that takes place after fertilization. The cortex isolated soon after fertilization is shown to contain coated pits and a scaffolding of filaments (mostly actin) in which many acidic vesicles are embedded.     

Ultrastructural analysis of egg membrane abnormalities in post-ovulatory aged eggs

Microscopic analyses of mammalian gamete ultrastructure have provided among the most seminal insights into fertilization. Here we present a summary of ultrastructural studies of mammalian fertilization, together with a review of the effects of post-ovulatory aging in eggs, and our own results using scanning electron microscopy to examine the effects of post-ovulatory aging on the egg membrane topography. Our previous work detected two abnormalities in egg membrane function in aged eggs: aged eggs appeared to be less able to support sperm-egg membrane interaction, thus rendering the eggs less fertilizable, and aged eggs appear to have a reduced ability to prevent polyspermy at the level of the egg membrane, i.e., to establish a membrane block to polyspermy. In the work presented here, we tested the suitability of both environmental (ESEM) and low-vacuum (LVSEM) modes of the FEI Quanta 200 Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope to study mammalian gametes. While ESEM mode was not sufficient under the conditions we used to observe fine cell surface details, the LVSEM mode proved to be an excellent way to view egg membrane topography. Unfertilized aged eggs have an abnormally distended amicrovillar region over the meiotic spindle, and fertilized aged eggs had three different abnormalities detected, from reduced sperm-induced membrane remodeling to abnormal sperm-induced membrane remodeling and membrane blebbing. Combining these insights of egg membrane function and topography with others in the field of post-ovulatory aging, we have expanded insights into why fertilization at increased times after ovulation is associated with poor reproductive outcomes.     

Rearrangements of sea urchin egg cytoplasmic membrane domains at fertilization

Fertilization in the sea urchin is accompanied by rapid reorganization of the egg endoplasmic reticulum (ER). ER-derived vesicles contribute to one of three classes of membranes used in assembling the male pronuclear envelope in vitro. We provide here biochemical evidence for the rearrangement of sea urchin egg cytoplasmic membrane domains at fertilization up to the first mitosis, with respect to two nuclear envelope markers, lamin B and lamin B receptor (LBR), using purified vesicles prepared from homogenates fractionated by floatation on sucrose gradients. In unfertilized eggs, immunoprecipitation data indicate that most of lamin B and LBR are localized in the same vesicles but do not interact. By 3 min post-fertilization, both proteins are more widely distributed across the gradients and by 12 min most of lamin B and LBR are localized in vesicles of different densities. This partitioning is maintained throughout S phase. At mitosis, most lamin B and LBR remain in distinct vesicles, while a small proportion of lamin B and LBR, likely derived from the disassembled nuclear envelope, associate in a minor subset of vesicles. The results illustrate a dynamic reorganization of egg cytoplasmic membranes at fertilization, and the establishment of distinct membrane domains enriched in specific nuclear envelope markers during the first cell cycle of sea urchin development. Additionally, we demonstrate that male pro-nuclear membrane assembly occurs only when both cytosol and membranes originate from fertilized but not unfertilized eggs, suggesting that fertilization-induced membrane rearrangements contribute to the ability of the egg to assemble the male pronuclear envelope.     

Refertilization in eggs of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus

To determine the role of the sea urchin egg plasma membrane in the species-specificity of fertilization, the ability of denuded activated eggs to be heterospecifically refertilized was determined. Our initial studies included evaluating the effectiveness of three commonly used methods of vitelline envelope (VE) removal using indirect immunofluorescence microscopy with antibodies directed against the VE. Unfertilized Strongylocentrotus purpuratus eggs were extracted with 0.01 M dithiothreitol (DTT) for 3 min or digested with 1.0 mg/ml pronase for 1 hr. Eggs were also fertilized, then diluted into a divalent-free medium to produce thin, elevated envelopes (VE*s) that were mechanically removed by sieving the eggs through nylon mesh. We found that both DTT extraction and pronase digestion were not completely effective in VE removal, and mechanical removal methods gave rise to a mixed population of eggs, those that had their VEs removed and those with a collapsed envelope that was not detectable at the light microscope level. Therefore, a new method of VE removal was developed. Eggs with VE*s were prepared followed by treatment with 0.01 M DTT to solubilize the envelopes. Nearly 100% of the denuded activated eggs incorporated one or more homologous and heterologous sperm, suggesting that the egg plasma membrane does not function in determining the species-specificity of fertilization.     

Ultrastructure of Oogenesis in Dryopteris crassirhizoma Nakai

The ultrastructure ofoogenesis in Dryopteris crassirhizoma Nakai has been investigated using transmission electron microscopy. The nucleus in the young egg is rounded with an uneven outline. As it develops, it becomes amoeboid and extends nuclear protrusions that are not only sac-like nuclear evaginations like those often seen in the oogenesis of other ferns, but also mushroom-like and finger-like, with an opening at their end allowing the nucleolus material to flow out from the openings. This has not been observed previously. The nuclear protrusions differ from Dryopterisfilix-mas (L.) Schott. in the absence of sheets of nuclear membrane in the form of a closed ring. As the egg matures, the nucleus transforms into a tuber-like structure with a smooth surface, lying transversely in the egg cell. In the immature egg, vesicles almost encircle the nucleus twice and are most remarkable. In the maturing egg, the vesicles are distributed at the periphery, except for at the top of the egg, and affect the formation of the separation cavity and extra egg membrane. Simultaneously, vesicles from the venter canal cell move to the egg and take part in the formation of separation cavity and extra egg membrane. In the mature egg, a large number of small vesicles containing fragments of lamellae or osmiophilic material emerge from the cytoplasm. The origin of these vesicles is obscure. Irregular plastids containing a cylindrical starch grain dedifferentiated progressively.Mitochondria seem to have been undeveloped during the process, but return to normal at later stages of oogenesis. There is a high frequency of ribosomes in the mature egg. Microtubules, rarely seen in the eggs of D.filix-mas (L.) Schott. and Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn, have been observed inside the plasmalemma of the maturing egg in D. crassirhizoma.     

Ultrastructure of Oogenesis in Dryopteris crassirhizoma Nakai

The ultrastructure of oogenesis in Dryopteris crassirhizoma Nakai has been investigated using transmission electron microscopy. The nucleus in the young egg is rounded with an uneven outline. As it develops, it becomes amoeboid and extends nuclear protrusions that are not only sac-like nuclear evaginations like those often seen in the oogenesis of other ferns, but also mushroom-like and finger-like, with an opening at their end allowing the nucleolus material to flow out from the openings. This has not been observed previously. The nuclear protrusions differ from Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott. in the absence of sheets of nuclear membrane in the form of a closed ring. As the egg matures, the nucleus transforms into a tuber-like structure with a smooth surface, lying transversely in the egg cell. In the immature egg, vesicles almost encircle the nucleus twice and are most remarkable. In the maturing egg, the vesicles are distributed at the periphery, except for at the top of the egg, and affect the formation of the separation cavity and extra egg membrane. Simultaneously, vesicles from the venter canal cell move to the egg and take part in the formation of separation cavity and extra egg membrane. In the mature egg, a large number of small vesicles containing fragments of lamellae or osmiophilic material emerge from the cytoplasm. The origin of these vesicles is obscure. Irregular plastids containing a cylindrical starch grain dedifferentiated progressively.Mitochondria seem to have been undeveloped during the process, but return to normal at later stages of oogenesis. There is a high frequency of ribosomes in the mature egg. Microtubules, rarely seen in the eggs ofD. filix-mas (L.) Schott. and Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn, have been observed inside the plasmalemma of the maturing egg in D. crassirhizoma.     

Intracellular localization of argyrophilic proteins in the maturing oocyte,fertilized egg,and spermatozoa of the starfish,Asterina pectinifera

Changes in intracellular localization of argyrophilic proteins visualized as silver-stained particles by nuclear organizer region (NOR)-silver staining were investigated in starfish oocyte maturation. The silver-stained particles were localized in the germinal vesicle and nucleolus of immature oocytes and dispersed into the cytoplasm at the time of germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD). In the mature egg cytoplasm, silver-stained particles were distributed on yolk-like granules with diameters of 0.3–1.0 μm. In spermatozoa, silver-stained particles were detected heavily in the acrosome and centrosomes but few were detected in the nucleus, whereas they were present in the male pronucleus of fertilized eggs. The silver-stained particles were removed by pretreatment of eggs with protease but not with nuclease. These results indicate that argyrophilic proteins disperse to the egg cytoplasm during GVBD and might be incorporated to the male pronucleus from the egg cytoplasm in fertilization. The morphological changes from chromosomes through chromosome vesicles to female pronucleus were also observed with light microscopy after NOR-silver staining.     

MAGNESIUM ION-REQUIRING STEP IN FERTILIZATION OF SEA URCHINS*

The magnesium ion-requiring step in fertilization of sea urchins was investigated. When eggs were inseminated in Mg-free sea water, several spermatozoa were found to bind to each egg surface with their reacted acrosomes without elevation of fertilization membrane. The number of binding jelly-treated spermatozoa to an egg did not differ regardless of the presence or virtual absence of magnesium ions. Although fertilization did not occur in Ca, Mg-deficient sea water (CM-deficient SW) even when jelly-treated spermatozoa were employed, some eggs could be fertilized by the addition of magnesium to the CM-deficient SW 60 sec after insemination, when jelly-treated spermatozoa had completely lost their fertilizing capacity in the CM-deficient SW. The acrosomal process of jelly-treated spermatozoa appeared to penetrate the vitelline layer in the CM-deficient SW. DTT- or pancreatin-treated eggs could not be fertilized in the virtual absence of magnesium. Re-fertilization using the fertilized eggs deprived of fertilization membrane did not occur under conditions of magnesium deficiency. These results suggest that external magnesium ions are indispensable at least for the fertilization process following penetration of the vitelline layer by the spermatozoa, such as fusion of the plasma membrane between an egg and a reacted spermatozoon, or the subsequent step(s) such as sperm penetration into egg interior and egg activation which precedes the cortical reaction.