Subsistence productivity and hunting effort in native South America

The question of why people work more or less at various activities is an old one in anthropology and recently has surfaced in studies of native South American societies. Growing out of debates about protein scarcity, arguments have arisen over the reasons why people spend time on hunting and fishing. Some authors suggest that labor allocation and other societal features can be explained with reference to absolute minimum requirements for specific nutrients (e.g., protein). This study presents data from four native Central Brazilian societies on the time spent at various subsistence tasks and the productivity of those tasks. The evidence suggests that decisions to allocate labor to hunting and fishing are influenced more by the overall possibilities for production in an area than by the availability of animal proteins alone. Satisfaction of calorie requirements appears to take precedence over satisfaction of protein requirements. In those societies in which gardening is highly productive, people can spend more time on hunting and fishing and improve the overall quality of their diet.     

Explanatory factors for household involvement in illegal bushmeat hunting around Serengeti,Tanzania

Bushmeat hunting, i.e., the hunting of wildlife for consumption, is a widespread and well-researched phenomenon. Here, we add to the literature on the factors that explain household engagement in hunting by asking how situational factors (such as distance from potential hunting grounds) and household-related variables both at the individual and at the social level (such as perceptions of law enforcement, relative wealth and ethnic background) are related to hunting activities.However, bushmeat hunting is inherently challenging to investigate as it is usually illegal. In this study, conducted in western Serengeti, Tanzania (n = 196 households in 12 villages), we used a variable that can be (and sometimes indeed is) incorporated in dietary recall surveys. This variable elicited the provenance of the bushmeat consumed, thereby avoiding direct statements about hunting activities. Counts of bushmeat sourced from household members were interpreted as a proxy for household engagement in hunting.In a binomial generalised linear model, perceived own relative wealth, perceived effectiveness of law enforcement, distance from the nearest protected area and ethnicity all significantly explained variation in counts of home-sourced bushmeat over 10 months. Our approach is useful for investigating changes in perceptions of household wealth and law enforcement and their effects on hunting over time, and could contribute substantially to a better understanding of the dynamics of hunting in response to conservation and development interventions.     

Subsistence hunting among the Waimiri Atroari Indians in central Amazonia, Brazil

Subsistence hunting among the Waimiri Atroari Indians in central Amazonia, Brazil, was studied from September 1993 to October 1994 to assess the current levels of resource exploitation. Hunting effort, harvesting yields and species composition of the hunt were recorded daily in five villages varying in number of people, location and age of the settlement. The Waimiri Atroari harvested a total of 3004 individuals of 41 species in one year. Lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris), white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari), collared peccary (T. tajacu) and spider monkey (Ateles paniscus) represented 87% of the total yearly game weight. Sex ratios of spider monkeys killed were heavily biased towards females indicating a stronger hunting pressure on those individuals. Harvesting yields was proportional to hunting efforts indicating no evident game depletion in the study period. However, capture per unit of effort was significantly different among villages. Differences in total game mass harvested may be explained by local resource depletion associated with age and size of the settlement. However, this relationship is confounded by the capacity of some villages to exploit distant hunting sites. Data obtained in one village showed that harvest rates were higher in hunting sites located far from settlement indicating game depletion in hunting sites surrounding the village.     

The impact of tourist hunting on large mammals in Tanzania: an initial assessment

In Tanzania, where tourist hunting is employed as a conservation tool for habitat protection, information on population sizes and hunting offtake was used to assess the impact of tourist hunting on mammal densities. In general, tourist hunting pressure was unrelated to local population sizes, but for most species, animals were removed at a level of less than 10% of the local population size, suggesting that over-exploitation was unlikely. Eland, however, and perhaps small antelope, bushbuck, kudu and reedbuck were hunted at levels which may be unsustainable in the long term. Analyses also identified areas of Tanzania with high levels of tourist hunting pressure, showed that, in certain areas, species with small population sizes such as eland could be declining as a result of tourist hunting, and suggested that current levels of lion and leopard offtake are too high. These findings, although preliminary, allow recommendations to be put forward for changing hunting quotas for certain species in particular areas of Tanzania.     

Patterns of bushmeat hunting and perceptions of disease risk among central African communities

There is a great need to determine the factors that influence the hunting, butchering and eating of bushmeat to better manage the important social, public health and conservation consequences of these activities. In particular, the hunting and butchering of wild animals can lead to the transmission of diseases that have potentially serious consequences for exposed people and their communities. Comprehension of these risks may lead to decreased levels of these activities. To investigate these issues, 3971 questionnaires were completed to examine the determinants of the hunting, butchering and eating of wild animals and perceptions of disease risk in 17 rural central African villages. A high proportion of individuals reported perceiving a risk of disease infection with bushmeat contact. Individuals who perceived risk were significantly less likely to butcher wild animals than those who perceived no risk. However, perception of risk was not associated with hunting and eating bushmeat (activities that, compared with butchering, involve less contact with raw blood and body fluids). This suggests that some individuals may act on perceived risk to avoid higher risk activity. These findings reinforce the notion that conservation programs in rural villages in central Africa should include health-risk education. This has the potential to reduce the levels of use of wild animals, particularly of certain endangered species (e.g. many non-human primates) that pose a particular risk to human health. However, as the use of wild game is likely to continue, people should be encouraged to undertake hunting and butchering more safely for their own and their community's health.     

Subsistence hunting and conservation issues in the game reserve of Gile, Mozambique

Ethnozoological research was conducted to gather information on the hunting activities and their relevance for the subsistence of local people in 8 villages around the game reserve of Gile, Mozambique. Two series of data were gathered by questionnaires to: (a) 510 householders from eight villages located in the outskirts of the Reserve; (b) 10 hunters from the village of Gile, the main centre of the study area. Several hunting techniques were recorded: spears, nets, traps (including gin-traps) and wildfires, while the use of guns did not appear relevant. The importance of subsistence hunting for local people was underlined by the high percentage of respondents who declared that they usually conduct this activity and sell bushmeat. The proportion of hunters per village was related to the village size but not to its geographical location of villages and the household composition. A positive relationship existed between the proportion of hunters, crop production and fishing activities, indicating that hunting is part of an integrated system of subsistence activities. Most animals harvested were mammals (89.5%, of which 46.7% were ungulates) and most were captured within the Reserve (96%). A higher percentage of animals was sold (56%), representing a relevant income source for the villagers. Small animals were mainly captured by traps during solitary hunting, medium-sized animals in collective net hunting; larger prey were captured by gin-traps adopted by both solitary and collective hunting. In the diet of the local people wild animals represented a higher protein source than domestic animals.     

Choice and constraint in a Papua New Guinean food quest

Historical factors and lineage affiliation are interpreted as constraining choice of sweet potato or sago as a major source of starch by Etolo family groups. The annual scheduling regime encouraged an association between the primary mode of starch production and the primary technique for obtaining game mammals. An emphasis upon sweet potato was linked to trapping and an emphasis upon sago was linked to hunting. For larger family groups whose membership was older, the preceding constraints were relaxed. By manipulating residential affiliation or the composition of economic units, people could offset constraints of history, lineage affiliation, and family size. Within the framework of those constraints there was much flexibility in the food-getting choices people made. At the level of household communities, trapping and hunting behavior were not obviously patterned around concerns of available prey or energetic efficiency.     

Consequences of different forms of conservation for large mammals in Tanzania: preliminary analyses

We examined the effects of protection from human activities and effects of tourist hunting on densities of 21 large mammal species in Tanzania. Aerial censuses revealed that mammal biomass per km² was highest in National Parks. Densities of nine ungulate species were significantly higher in National Parks and Game Reserves than in areas that permitted settlement; these tended to be the larger species favoured by poachers. The presence of tourist hunters had little positive or negative impact on ungulate densities, even for sought-after trophy species; limited ground censuses confirmed these results. Our analyses suggest that prohibition of human activity, backed up by on-site enforcement, maintains ungulate populations at relatively high densities, and challenge the idea that enforcement is only effective when spending is high.     

Sex ratio of leopards taken in trophy hunting: genetic data from Tanzania

The sex ratio of leopards, Panthera pardus, taken by trophyhunters in Tanzania is examined. We used sex specific molecularmarkers to analyze 77 samples collected from animals shot betweenthe years 1995–1998 and found that 28.6% were females, despitethe fact that only males are allowed on licenses and all skinswere tagged as males. The model used for quota setting assumesthat only males are shot, but the effect of this violation ofquotas is unknown. Off-take in Tanzania does not currently fillquotas, but when off-take approach maximum levels, compliancewith set quotas and regulations will be critical for sustainableharvest.     

The nature of hunting around the Western Corridor of Serengeti National Park, Tanzania

In many parts of Africa, illegal hunting is considered the most pressing issue in protected areas. Poaching has remained a persistent problem through the 50 year long history of Serengeti National Park. Around 2 million people live along the borders of the park. Poverty is widespread, and the population is increasing rapidly. In this paper we examine the local perceptions of importance and reasons for hunting, gender differences and opinions about mitigating measures among villagers around Serengetis Western Corridor. The data were collected through interviewing 590 persons in eight villages close to the borders of the park. Hunting is driven by the need to not only increase food supply and cash income, but also fulfil cultural and social needs. We also identified a proactive attitude in the rural communities towards reducing illegal hunting and more constructive relationships with the management authorities of the national park. The role of hunting in community life extends beyond the immediate poverty issue, and should be seen as an element in the larger development agenda of rural Tanzania and the quest for models for sustainable wildlife management.     

Optimal hunting and Pleistocene extinction

A basic assumption of the Pleistocene extinction, or overkill hypothesis, is that rates of human predation on numerous genera of megafauna exceeded prey replacement rates. Previous assessments of this hypothesis have often stressed the technological or organizational capabilities of Paleolithic hunters to harvest prey in sufficient numbers to threaten extinction. Optimal foraging models and ethnographic observations of modern hunters-gatherers provide a logical basis for assessing the feasibility of alternative reconstructions of Paleolithic hunting strategies as well as their compatibility with the concept of critically high rates of predation sufficient to cause extinction.An earlier version of this paper was delivered under the title Optimal Foraging and Pleistocene Extinction as part of a symposium entitled, Environments and Extinctions: Man in the Late Glacial North America (J. I. Mead and D. J. Meltzer, Organizers) held at the 47th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Minneapolis, Minnesota, April 14–17 1982.     

Optimization theory and pre-columbian hunting in the Tehuacan Valley

Previous analyses of faunal remains from highland Mesoamerican sites have viewed implied changes in animal exploitation patterns as a secondary consequence of early agricultural practices. This paper argues that faunal data from the Tehuacan Valley, when interpreted within an optimization framework provide evidence for the alteration of optimal meat harvesting strategies through time by communities responding to a variety of socioenvironmental factors: seasonal and long-term availability of game, access to domestic meat resources, human meat demand levels, and scheduling constraints.     

The bushmeat trade in southwestern Nigeria: A case study

Hunters and bushmeat retailers in Bendel State, Nigeria were interviewed from May through August 1982. Hunting was found to take place in all months of the year, but became more intense during the dry season. Twentyseven species of mammal were reported to be hunted, while 22 species of mammal and five species of reptile were found on sale. Retailers reported that the grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianuswas the most popular species among their customers, followed by Maxwell's duiker, the brushtailed porcupine, and the bushpig. The grasscutter was also the most widely sold species, followed by the giant rat, monkeys, and Maxwell's duiker. Game animals were found to be shot and sold with little regard to existing laws, with the result that the larger mammals have become rare in Bendel and populations of the smaller ones have come under severe pressure. The bushmeat trade is highly commercialized, and substantial profits accrue to middlemen. Recommendations are made for the conservation of a natural resource, wildlife, that not only provides a significant amount of animal protein but also supports a large rural economy.     

Ka'apor ritual hunting

Several investigators cite population control, frequent settlement relocation, trekking, expansion of diet breadth, and food taboos as strategic responses to game depletion by indigenous populations living in interfluvial zones of lowland South America. The Ka'apor Indians of the interfluvial forest of northern Maranhão, Brazil, employ other means of optimizing hunting efficiency, partly based on ritual. Menstruating women, pubescent girls, and parents of newborns can consume meat only of the tortoise (Gochelone denticulata), the first prey species to be hunted out of an area. Tortoise capture requires, on average, one full day of hunting. This means that the full potential of hunting pressure does not materialize near the settlement. Meat productivity is unusually high even near old settlements. I argue that ritual tortoise hunting helps to regulate environmental utilization, to maintain a sustained yield of meat protein, and to expand the catchment area gradually.     

Small pack size imposes a trade-off between hunting and pup-guarding in the painted hunting dog Lycaon pictus

The painted hunting dog or African wild dog, Lycaon pictus,is one of the most endangered large carnivores in Africa, withextinction predicted within a few decades if their dramaticdecline is not stopped. It has recently been hypothesized thatbecause of their constraining need for helpers, group sizewas of major importance in obligate cooperative breeding species,and that the resulting likely existence of a threshold numberof adults could create an Allee effect, increasing the groupextinction risk. One example where the importance for a criticalnumber of adults may have major repercussions for painted huntingdogs concerns baby-sitting, or pup-guarding, a behavior typicalof obligate cooperative breeders. We propose that, as forgoingthis behavior is costly because pup guards have the potentialto decrease pup mortality, its use is costly too, especiallyin small packs, because helpers are strongly needed for theircooperative foraging (hunting, protecting the kill and bringingback food to the pups). We present a simple model showing howpup-guarding imposes a cost because it implies that less foodper hunt is brought back to more individuals at the den. Wecomplete these analyses with empirical tests of the effectof pack size on the probability of pup-guarding, from fielddata from the Hwange population in Zimbabwe. Our model, aswell as our 5 years of empirical data, both suggest a criticalthreshold at a size of about five individuals.     

Bushmeat hunting changes regeneration of African rainforests

To assess ecological consequences of bushmeat hunting in African lowland rainforests, we compared paired sites, with high and low hunting pressure, in three areas of southeastern Nigeria. In hunted sites, populations of important seed dispersers—both small and large primates (including the Cross River gorilla, Gorilla gorilla diehli)—were drastically reduced. Large rodents were more abundant in hunted sites, even though they are hunted. Hunted and protected sites had similar mature tree communities dominated by primate-dispersed species. In protected sites, seedling communities were similar in composition to the mature trees, but in hunted sites species with other dispersal modes dominated among seedlings. Seedlings emerging 1 year after clearing of all vegetation in experimental plots showed a similar pattern to the standing seedlings. This study thus verifies the transforming effects of bushmeat hunting on plant communities of tropical forests and is one of the first studies to do so for the African continent.     

Sentient Beings and Wildlife Resources: Inuit,Beluga Whales and Management Regimes in the Canadian Arctic

Beluga whale hunting is one of the most social subsistence hunting activities to take place in the Canadian Arctic. Through the harvest, distribution and consumption of beluga whales, Inuit identity and social relationships are affirmed. The whale-hunting complex is influenced by beliefs that beluga whales are sentient beings who inhabit a shared social space with humans. Yet, across the region beluga whales are perceived by wildlife managers as scarce resources and as such require protection through the imposition of management plans. There is currently no management of whales on the west coast of Hudson Bay, in Nunavut. In 2002, Inuit there were requested to sell part of their whale harvest to Inuit in Nunavik, northern Quebec, where hunting quotas exist. The outcome of this event was concern in Nunavut for the future of the whale hunt, and a deepening sense of powerlessness in Nunavik due to the management of the whale harvest.

舟山群岛四种兽人为捕杀活动的初步研究

捕杀是人为对物种的一种重要干扰因子。本文研究了舟山群岛獐（Ｈｙｄｒｏｐｏｔｅｓ ｉｎｅｒｍｉｓ）、麂（Ｍｕｎｔｉａｃｕｓ ｒｅｅｖｅｓｉ）、小灵猫（Ｖｉｕｅｒｒｉｃｕｌａ ｉｎｄｉｃａ）和豹猫（Ｆｅｌｉｓ ｂｅｎｇａｌｅｎｓｉｓ）的人为捕杀率、捕杀量和捕杀活动。四种兽的捕杀率高,捕杀量大。舟山群岛及相邻地区非法狩猎活动很猖獗。建议对我国人为捕杀的程度和范围进行广泛的调查,并开展《野生动物保护法》的