Gender-specific growth patterns for stature,sitting height and limbs length in Croatian children and youth (3 to 18 years of age)

In a cross-sectional study of growth, 5,155 children (2,591 females, 2,564 males) from the town of Zagreb (Croatia) were measured. Four traits of linear dimensionality (stature, sitting height, arm and leg lengths) were studied in the age span of 3 to 18 years. A significant average annual increase of all four anthropometric parameters were observed up to 14 and 15 years of age in girls and 16 years of age in boys, showing that girls had a shorter growing period. In the prepubertal period until 9 years of age, gender differences were negligible. At the age of 10, boys were overgrown by girls in all parameters due to the earlier onset of puberty in girls. The growth gains for girls, when compared with those for boys, show a different pattern across variables. The female growth advantage remained in a two years period for the limbs length, but in a three year period for stature and the longest, for 4 years, for sitting height. The male predominance in size had an onset at the age of 13 for the limbs and in the age of 14 for stature and sitting height. The patterns of sexual dimorphism in stature and sitting height during growing years are similar to those observed in other populations of Europe. Growth of Croatian children and youth is very similar to that of the tallest European populations.     

Height and weight growth patterns of school age deaf children

Distance and velocity curves for height and weight were analyzed in a mixed longitudinal sample of American White, American Negro and Mexican-American deaf children 6 through 17 years of age. The heights of deaf boys and girls are, on the average, consistently below an accepted pediatric standard from six through ten years of age. Between 11 and 17 years, deaf White and Negro boys approximate the standard, while White and Negro girls are at or slightly below the standard. Deaf Mexican-American children are consistently below the height standard. For body weight, deaf boys are at or slightly below the standard from 6 to 11 years, and are at or slightly above the weight standard from 12 to 17 years of age. White and Negro deaf girls generally approximate the weight standard from eight years of age on. Mexican-American deaf girls are consistently below the standard until 13 years of age, while between 14 and 17 years they are at or above the standard. Height and weight velocity curves for deaf children parallel closely the incremental standards of Falkner ('62). The height velocity curve, however, appears to peak, on the average, about one year earlier in deaf children.     

哈萨克族学生体质发育状况的10年比较分析

报道新疆阿勒泰地区1995年2589名城镇7—18岁哈萨克族(哈族)中小学生身高、体重、胸围、坐高、肩宽、骨盆宽6项体质发育指标的调查结果。男女生体质发育指标随年龄增加而增长,各项指标的年均增长值皆为男生大于女生。与1985年比较,哈族学生的身高、体重、胸围皆有不同程度增长。哈族男女生的身高突增年龄仍分别为14岁和10岁,但是其身高增长却不伴有相应比例的坐高增长,女生部分年龄组的肩宽和男女生各年龄组的骨盆宽呈现负增长,提示哈族学生的体型与10年前相比已经开始有所改变。     

Growth and somatotype patterns of manus children,territory of Papua and New Guinea: Application of a modified somatotype method to the study of growth patterns

The growth and somatotype patterns of Manus children, Territory of Papua and New Guinea, reflected in anthropometric measurements and somatotype photographs, is reported for 438 children, ranging from 15 months of age to maturity. Somatotype distributions and individual somatotype photographs indicate little difference between boys and girls from age 1 to 4 years; between age 5 and 9 years boys shift toward higher second component ratings; between age 10 and 18 years boys shift toward higher second and third component ratings, while girls shift toward higher first and third component ratings. Four sample somatotype photographs are representative of the population at age 10 and 14 years, and show age and sex characters easily noted visually. Comparison of height, weight and subscapula skinfold values show that the Manus children resemble the Kaiapit and Bundi children of the New Guinea highlands populations reported by Malcolm in the form of their growth curves but not in growth rates. Manus children grow more slowly than the British, but faster than the Kaiapit and Bundi children. While low skinfold values and height/weight ratios derived from means for height and weight suggest somatotypic similarity of the Manus, Kaiapit and Bundi populations, somatotype photographs are needed for confirmation. Lacking historical information and genetic evidence, we can speculare that diet, nutrition, climate and perhaps physical activity are factors which influence the growth patterns of these populations. The protein intake derived from fish and other seafood may be an important factor in the relatively fast growth and earlier maturation of the Manus. Malcolm thinks that low protein intake plays an important role with the Kaiapit and Bundi, but does not rule out survival value of slow growth and short stature.     

Growth attainments of well-off chandigarh children: A mixed longitudinal study

Distance and velocity pattern of growth for body weight and height of 134 well-off Chandigarh boys aged 9–17 years, and 109 girls aged 9 to 16 years were studied following a mixedlongitudinal growth study design. For both body weight and height pattern-wise, Chandigarh boys showed close similarity with their American counterparts up to about 13 years of age, while girls did so till 12 years. Where after, Chandigarh children remained lighter and shorter than those of American origin and this differential may be explained on racial grounds rather than nutritional ones since all children included in this study remained free from dietary and other health related constraints. Marginally, higher height growth attainments noticed in Chandigarh children in contrast to their other Indian counterparts during initial years of adolescence shows that Chandigarh children are in process of expressing their genetic growth potential to its full which has not yet been fully achieved. The rate (velocity) of weight and height growth in Chandigarh children remained substatially lower than their sex-matched British counterparts throught the period of study. PHV in boys measured 6.4 cm/yr. and 5.4 cm/yr. in girls. It was attained at the age of 11.5 years in girls and 12.5 years in boys. Peak weight velocity in boys averaged 3.7 kg/yr., while it measured 4.6 kg/yr. in girls. In girls (11.5 yr.), PWV too was attained earlier than boys (13.5 yr.) by two years. The shorter height and lighter weight growth attainments noticed in Chandigarh children in contrast to their Western counterparts may be attributed to slower and lesser magnitude peak growth velocities recorded in Chandigarh children. The use of values presented has been recommended to monitor and assess growth attainments of Indian children residing in the Union Territory of Chandigarh.     

Sexual dimorphism in growth from 8 to 18 years

A mixed longitudinal study of growth and development has been conducted, centering on an analysis of differences based on sex between the ages of 8 and 18 years for a series of 12 anthropometric indicators. The sample consisted of 50 girls and 63 boys. Proceeding from the specific differences, the variables can be divided into four groups with identical structures of differences. The first group comprises measurements of body height, body mass, shoulder width and pelvic span, all of which have higher values in boys between 8 and 10 and between 14 and 18. Between the ages of 11 and 13 girls are taller, heavier, with broader shoulders and pelvises. The second group covers measurements of subcutaneous fat. which are higher for girls throughout the period under review. The third group of indicators comprises the diameters of the joints of the extremities, i.e. of elbows and knees. Throughout the period under observation, these measurements are higher in boys, with the absolute differences between the sexes being the same at the age of 8 and ten years later. The fourth group consists of circumferences measurements of the extremities. It was found that calf circumferences manifested a specific inversion of the curves between 14 and 15, with girls showing a larger calf circumference up to the age of 14, and boys from the age of 15. The effect of earlier onset of puberty in girls was found to be reflected only on the inversion of the curve flow of the variables from the first group.     

Body height,weight, and skeletal maturation in Hottentot (Khoikhoi) children

Growth of body height and weight and skeletal maturation are discussed, based on 49 male and 61 female Hottentot children aged 3 to 17 years from Warmbad, Namibia (South West Africa) and 124 boys and 113 girls aged 1 to 21 years of related populations, the Rehoboth Basters of Namibia and Cape Coloreds from Cape Town, South Africa. The related populations are taller and heavier than the Hottentots, and have almost the same body height as American blacks and whites at least after the age of 18 years. In the Hottentots and Rehoboth Basters, the mean TW2 skeletal age is always less than the British standard by one or two years in both sexes. In general, the Rehoboth Basters have a skeletal age that is intermediate between Hottentot and British children. In both Hottentots and Rehoboth Basters, the increase in body height shows a linear relation to the skeletal age, and the regression curves are almost parallel in both sexes. The differences in body height and weight between the Hottentots and Rehoboth Basters become greater after the skeletal ages of 15 years for boys and 13 years for girls.     

Age-related changes and sex differences in postural control adaptability in children during periodic floor oscillation with eyes closed

We investigated age-related changes and sex differences in adaptability of anticipatory postural control in children. Subjects comprised 449 children (4-12 years old) and 109 young adults (18-29 years old). Subjects stood with eyes closed on a force-platform fixed to a floor oscillator. We conducted five trials of 1-minute oscillation (0.5 Hz frequency, 2.5 cm amplitude) in the anteroposterior direction. Postural steadiness was quantified as the mean speed of the center of pressure in the anteroposterior direction (CoPy). In young adults, CoPy speed decreased rapidly until the third trial for both sexes. Adaptability was evaluated by changes in steadiness. The adaptability of children was categorized as "good," "moderate," and "poor," compared with a standard variation of the mean CoPy speed regression line between the first and fifth trials in young adults. Results were as follows: (1) anticipatory postural control adaptability starts to develop from age 6 in boys and 5 in girls, and greatly improves at age 7-8 in boys and 6 in girls; (2) the adaptability of children at age 11-12 (74% of boys and 63% of girls were categorized as "good") has not yet reached the same level as for young adults; (3) the adaptability at age 11-12 for girls is temporarily disturbed due to early puberty.     

Clinical standards for growth velocity in height of Belgian boys and girls,aged 2 to 18 years

The present paper presents the first clinical standards for growth velocity in height of Belgian boys and girls, based on purely longitudinal data. Growth charts are provided with centiles of height for age, along with the growth velocity curves of the typical early, average and late maturing child in the population. These new growth velocity standards provide centile lines which allow to judge whether a child's growth velocity over a one-year interval lies within the limits of normal variation for his age, irrespective of his stage of maturation. They also provide information about variability in the individual patterns of growth velocity in the population and can, as such, also be used to evaluate the normality of a child's pattern in growth velocity over a longer period of time. Age at peak velocity occured in 95% of the children within an age range of about 4 years. The average age at peak height velocity at puberty was 14.0 years (S.D.=1.0) in boys and 11.6 years (S.D.=0.9) in girls. Peak height velocity was in the average 9.1 cm/year (S.D.=1.4) in boys and 7.5 cm/year (S.D.=1.1) in girls. The representativity of these new standards with respect to the actual Belgian population was tested by comparison with recent cross-sectional data, collected on a large number of subjects. These new charts will find useful applications in longitudinal health screening surveys, and in clinical follow-up studies, where interest lies in the examination of a child's growth retardation in relation to some disease, or catch-up growth, as a response to subsequent medical treatment.     

Cortical bone loss and measurements of the second metacarpal bone: II. Hypodense bone in postwar Guamanian children

Hand-wrist radiographs from 326 Guamanian children (180 boys and 146 girls) were evaluated for total width, medullary width, length, and combined cortical thickness of the second metacarpal. Bone measurements as well as standing height and weight were compared to similar published data from U.S. mainland black, white, and Mexican-American children. The results demonstrated that the second metacarpal bones of Guamanian boys and girls of all age groups (5–17 years) have a narrower width and shorter length with less combined cortical thickness than any of the other groups. Guamanian children also weighed less and were of shorter stature than their black, white, or Mexican-American counterparts. These results agree closely with those comparisons between Guamanian and U.S. mainland white adults published earlier. It is not possible from the present data to ascertain whether these differences were due to genetic variability or nutritional deficiency.     

Growth profile of rural Meitei children of Manipur state of India

Patterns of growth in 10 anthropometric measurements among the rural Manipuri children (N=425), aged 5 to 14 years, with poor socio-economic backgrounds are reported. The anthropometric dimensions include weight, stature, sitting-height, head, chest and midupper-arm circumferences, biepicondylar widths of humerus and femur, and triceps and biceps skinfolds. Except skinfolds, the boys measured more than the girls in all measurements at all ages, except from 10 to 12 years in weight, stature, sitting-height, and chest and mid-upper-arm circumferences. Across all ages, the girls had thicker fat folds. Up to 12 years, the children lie approximately on the 10th centile of NCHS in stature and weight. The arm circumferences was below the 3rd centile of the Dutch children, until 11 years. The triceps fat fold fluctuated between 10th and 25th centiles of US whites. The rural Meiteis were taller and heavier than rural Burmese and urban Meiteis. The overall growth performance of the rural Meitei children was poor as compared to US, Urban Chinese, and well-nourished Indian children.     

Do American born Japanese children still grow faster than native Japanese?

Growth patterns of Japanese schoolchildren in Hawaii, composed of 2,954 boys and 3,213 girls aged between 11 and 17, were compared with those comparable groups of Japanese schoolchildren in Japan based on the data published by the Japanese Ministry of Education. Growth characteristics studied were height, weight, and relative weight index, weight/(height). The Hawaii-Japanese boys were taller at early ages but the difference disappeared by age 16. Native Japanese girls were shorter than Hawaii-Japanese until age 13, but they overtook the latter by age 14, exceeding them in height after age 15. A similar pattern was found in weights of girls but the Hawaii-Japanese boys remained consistently heavier by 5.0 to 9.0 kg than native Japanese. The relative weight measure indicated that the Hawaii boys were more "obese" than native Japanese boys for the growth period studied; whereas the same tendency was maintained until age 15 in girls. These observations indicate a marked degree of convergence of the patterns of physical growth of the two populations, whose differences were unmistakably in favor of American born children in earlier studies. It is concluded that the convergence is due largely to the improved environmental conditions in Japan in recent years.     

Longitudinal analysis of adolescent growth of ladino and Mayan school children in Guatemala: effects of environment and sex.

The rate of growth in height and the timing of adolescent growth events are analyzed for two samples of Guatemalan children. One sample includes Mayan school children, 33 boys and 12 girls between the ages of 5.00 to 17.99 years, living under poor conditions for growth and development. The second sample includes ladino children, 78 boys and 85 girls of the same age range, living under favorable conditions for growth. The Preece-Baines model I function is used to estimate mean values for rates and timing of childhood and adolescent growth events for the two groups. Significant statistical contrasts (t-tests) of these means show Mayan boys reach the age of "take-off" (TO; the onset of the adolescent growth spurt) 1.45 years later, achieve peak height velocity (PHV) 1.68 years later, and continue growing for about 2.0 years longer than do the ladino boys. Despite the Mayan boys' increased duration for growth they grow significantly more slowly than the ladinos. Mayan boys are 6.60 cm shorter than ladinos at the age of TO and are estimated to be 7.71 cm shorter than the ladinos at adulthood. Mayan girls reach the age of TO 0.93 years later than do the ladina girls, but the two groups do not differ in the age at PHV or the age at adulthood. The mean height of Mayan girls is significantly less than that of ladinas at the age of TO (6.5 cm), and this difference increases to an estimated 11.14 cm at adulthood. Possible causes of these ethnic and sex-related differences in amounts and rates of growth are discussed in relation to hypotheses about the genetic and environmental determinants of human development.     

遗传和环境因素对儿童青少年身体高度及其比例的影响

目前有关儿童青少年坐高、下肢长及其比值的报道多为非双生子人群的研究。为了解遗传和环境因素对儿童青少年坐高、下肢长及坐高与下肢长比值影响的相对大小,我们对796对6～18岁双生子的身高和坐高进行了测量,计算下肢长及坐高与下肢长比值,采用结构方程模型分析其遗传和环境相对效应。结果发现,校正年龄后,男女15～18岁年龄组坐高和下肢长的遗传度(0.63～0.78)均分别高于同性别低年龄段儿童青少年(0.31～0.68);坐高与下肢长比值的遗传度除9～11岁女生(0.84)外,其他年龄组均较低(男0.16～0.46,女0.21～0.57);共同环境因素和特殊环境因素对6～14岁儿童青少年各指标的作用较大。本研究提示,在快速发育时期,坐高、下肢长和坐高与下肢长比值对环境因素更为敏感,遗传度较低;机体越成熟,其遗传效应更强。     

Growth charts for Croatian school children and secular trends in past twenty years

The aim of this study was to construct new Croatian growth charts for body height and weight of boys and girls aged 6.5 to 18.5 years and to investigate differences between our and pre-existing studies. Analysis was based on a multistage stratified sample representative for school children aged 6.5 to 18.5, 6046 boys and 5656 girls. Growth reference was constructed using LMS method. Present results demonstrated an increment of body height and weight during the last two decades. Highest increase of body height is in boys aged 13-14 years 6.5 cm, in girls aged 12 years is 5.0 cm. Highest increase of body weight is in 16 year age group of boys 8.7 kg and in 11-12 year age group of girls 5.2 kg. In conclusion, regarding presence of secular trend because previously used growth charts in Croatia are obsolete.     

Hyperinsulinemia in pre- and post-pubertal children born small for gestational age

BACKGROUND: Reduced fetal growth is a potential risk factor for development of metabolic abnormalities in later life. The relationship between low birthweight and impaired glucose tolerance, type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance in adulthood has been well documented. PURPOSE: Assuming that fetal undernutrition is associated with insulin resistance in middle age, we elected to study whether this process may already be present in young adults and adolescents born small for gestational age (SGA). SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Children born in Vall d'Hebron Hospital Infantil, Barcelona, between 1986 and 1989 and between 1978 and 1983 with birthweights below the third centile for the local standard values, were invited to participate in the present study. Of those, 51 (22 girls and 29 boys) were pre-pubertal with 9.4 +/- 0.2 years of age and 49 (29 girls and 20 boys ) were post-pubertal, with 17.3 +/- 0.3 years of age. All patients underwent a standard, 2-hour oral glucose tolerance test. Insulin and glucose responses were compared with our previously published data in control children with normal birthweight. RESULTS: The insulin response at 30 min after glucose load was significantly higher (p < 0.001) in pre- and post-pubertal girls and boys formerly SGA than in controls. In addition, the girls also had a higher insulin response at 60 and 120 min. Mean serum insulin (MSI), the area under the insulin curve during the glucose challenge, was statistically increased in pre- and post-pubertal boys and girls born SGA when compared to controls. CONCLUSION: The presence of high insulin levels after an oral glucose challenge in children and adolescents born SGA might be considered as an early marker of subsequent insulin resistance in adulthood. Furthermore, our population offers the opportunity to study the natural course of hyperinsulinemia and its outcome. Follow-up of this cohort may be helpful in distinguishing a subset of young children and adolescents in whom therapeutic intervention could be done.     

Bone growth and mineralisation in children aged 4 to 10 years

The relationships between bone width and mineral content and age, sex, height and weight were studied in 420 children aged 4–10 years living in Cambridge using single photon absorptiometry. The relationship of bone width with bone mineral content was significantly different between the sexes after adjusting for differences in body size. In addition, bone width in boys was found to be greater for a given height and weight; changes in weight had a greater effect on bone width in boys than in girls. Prediction equations for bone width and mineral content based on height and weight are given, which should enhance the application of single photon absorptiometry in clinical practice.     

Growth pattern of the Kamars--a primitive tribe of Chhattisgarh,India

A cross sectional study of the physical growth status was made on 655 Kamar children (341 boys and 314 girls), aged 5 to 18 years, in the Raipur district of Chhattisgarh. The study aimed to find out the growth pattern of the Kamar children, which is considered to be a primitive tribe of Chhattisgarh, India and was compared with another Indian tribe and the official data for all India (ICMR). Anthropometric measurements included height, weight, sitting height, biacromial diameter, biilliocrystal diameter, upper arm circumference, calf circumference and measurements of the triceps and subscapular skinfolds. All anthropometric measurements except skinfold thickness exhibit uniform increase with age in both sexes. However, when height and weight of the Kamar boys and girls were compared with the data for other tribes and for all India, the Kamar children (both boys and girls) indicated lower weight and height and the difference showed to be significant, for almost all ages. Kamar boys showed higher anthropometric values than girls in almost all measurements except in biilliocrystal diameter and in measured skinfolds. Poor socio-economic status of this primitive tribe may be one of the reasons for this poor growth pattern. However, in-depth study is necessary in order to arrive at any basic conclusions and to recommend any policy and interventions.     

Growth and malnutrition in Ethiopia

This article focuses on anthropometric parameters as height for age, weight for age and weight for height, which are among the most used tools for assessing well-being of infants and children. Such data have been collected between 1992--1993 from samples of infants and children aged between 2 and 10 years from urban and rural areas of Ethiopia. Similar to many other reports from developing countries the great amount of malnourished children is preoccupying as reflected by about 15% of children below the 5th centile of weight for height and about 53% of children below the 5th centile of height for age and about 45% below the 5th centile of weight for age.     

Relative lower extremity length in Mexican American and in American black and white youth

Stature, sitting height, estimated leg (subischial) length and the sitting height/stature ratio are compared in Mexican American, American White and American Black boys 9 through 14 years of age and girls 12 through 17 years of age. Mexican American youth are shorter in stature and have absolutely shorter lower extremities. The sitting height of Mexican American youth is similar to that of Black youth and shorter than that of White youth. The sitting height/stature ratio is virtually identical in Mexican American and White youth, indicating similar proportions of lower extremities to stature. In contrast, Black youth have absolutely and relatively longer lower extremities than Mexican American and White youth. These results would thus seem to suggest that reference data for the body mass index (BMI) based on American White youth can be used with Mexican American youth, while race-specific values may be necessary for American Black youth. However, ethnic variation in physique, perhaps frame size, may be a factor which should be more systematically considered in evaluating the utility of the body mass index.