Attraction of subterranean termites (Isoptera) to carbon dioxide

Subterranean termites, Reticulitermes spp., were attracted to carbon dioxide (CO2) in laboratory and field tests. In behavioral bioassays, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar), Reticulitermes tibialis Banks, and Reticulitermes virginicus Banks were attracted to CO2 concentrations between 5 and 50 mmol/mol. In further bioassays, R. tibialis and R. virginicus were attracted to the headspace from polyisocyanurate construction foam that contained 10-12 mmol/mol CO2. In soil bioassays in the laboratory, more termites foraged in chambers containing CO2-generating formulations than in unbaited control chambers. In field tests, stations containing CO2-generating baits attracted R. tibialis away from wooden fence posts at rangeland sites in Colorado. For all of the CO2 formulations tested, termites foraged in significantly more bait stations at treatment fenceposts than in bait stations at the control fenceposts. By the end of the 8-wk study, the number of bait stations located by termites at treatment fenceposts ranged from 40 to 90%. At control fenceposts, termites foraged in only a single station and the one positive station was not located by termites until week 5 of the study. At treatment fenceposts, termites foraged equally in active stations (containing a CO2-generating bait) and passive stations (with no CO2-generating bait), indicating that bait stations may benefit passively from a proximal CO2 source in the soil. CO2 used as an attractant in current baiting systems could improve their effectiveness by allowing earlier exposure of termites to an insecticide.     

Impacts of soil moisture level on consumption and movement of three sympatric subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in a laboratory assay

Three subterranean termite species, Reticuliternes flavipes (Kollar), Reticulitermes tibialis Banks, and Reticulitermes virginicus (Banks), were collected from locations in northern Indiana and tested under laboratory conditions to determine whether preferential differences exist among species. Foraging behaviors and location of all three species were studied using a linear, three-dimensional assay with a soil moisture gradient (5, 15, 25, 35, 45, and 55% moisture by weight) and quantified by (1) consumption weights and (2) location counts. In a 7-d period, R. flavipes and R. tibialis consumed almost twice as much filter paper as R. virginicus. No significant difference in feeding was attributed to moisture level for R. tibialis, but there were differences for R. flavipes and R. virginicus. In terms of location of harborage, there were clear patterns associated with moisture level, as predicted using a Poisson distribution. Results from consumption and location data show unique patterns among species, and illustrate species-specific variation in feeding location and nesting preference in response to moisture. There are significant differences in movement patterns, consumption, and mortality among Indiana Reticulitermes according to the laboratory assay. These findings contribute to the overall understanding of midwestern Reticulitermes termites.     

Tunnel formation by Reticulitermes flavipes and Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in response to wood in sand.

The tunneling responses of two subterranean termite species, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki and Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar), to the presence of sound wood in laboratory arenas were studied. Branching pattern and the speed of tunnel construction between R. flavipes and C. formosanus also were compared. Patlak's residence index (rho) was generated using the length, width, speed of construction, and area of the primary tunnels built by termites. In the same allotted time, C. formosanus built wider and shorter primary tunnels, whereas R. flavipes built thinner and longer primary tunnels. The presence of wood did not affect termite tunnel formation. This lack of variation in tunnel formation parameters was evidenced by the inability of the termites to locate wood sources over distance, even as short as 2.5 mm, and by the similar tunneling behaviors in areas of the arena with or without wood. Patlak's model predicted the densities of tunnels with an error between 9 and 28%. in experiments with R. flavipes exposed to a range of 0-8,000 g of wood, and between 61 and 87% in experiments with C. formosanus. These results indicated that the residence index can provide a qualitative measure of the effect of habitat heterogeneity on the individual termite tunnels. The tunneling constructions strategy of these subterranean termites is discussed.     

Characterization of abundance and diversity of lactic acid bacteria in the hindgut of wood- and soil-feeding termites by molecular and culture-dependent techniques

Lactic acid bacteria have been identified as typical and numerically significant members of the gut microbiota of Reticulitermes flavipes and other wood-feeding lower termites. We found that also in the guts of the higher termites Nasutitermes arborum (wood-feeding), Thoracotermes macrothorax, and Anoplotermes pacificus (both soil-feeding), lactic acid bacteria represent the largest group of culturable carbohydrate-utilizing bacteria (3.6-5.2x10(4) bacteria per gut; 43%-54% of all colonies). All isolates were coccoid and phenotypically difficult to distinguish, but their enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus sequence (ERIC) fingerprint patterns showed a significant genetic diversity. Six different genotypes each were identified among the isolates from R. flavipes and T. macrothorax, and representative strains were selected for further characterization. By 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, strain RfL6 from R. flavipes was classified as a close relative of Enterococcus faecalis, whereas strain RfLs4 from R. flavipes and strain TmLO5 from T. macrothorax were closely related to Lactococcus lactis. All strains consumed oxygen during growth on glucose and cellobiose; oxygen consumption of these and other isolates from both termite species was due to NADH and pyruvate oxidase activities, but did not result in H2O2 formation. In order to assess the significance of the isolates in the hindgut, denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis was used to compare the fingerprints of 16S rRNA genes in the bacterial community of R. flavipes with those of representative isolates. The major DNA band from the hindgut bacterial community was further separated by bisbenzimide-polyethylene glycol electrophoresis, and the two resulting bands were sequenced. Whereas one sequence belonged to a spirochete, the second sequence was closely related to the sequences of the Lactococcus strains RfLs4 and TmLO5. Apparently, those isolates represent strains of a new Lactococcus species which forms a significant fraction of the complex hindgut community of the lower termite R. flavipes and possibly also of other termites.     

Influence of temperature on rate of uptake and subsequent horizontal transfer of [14C]fipronil by eastern subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae)

The effect of temperature on [14C]fipronil uptake and transfer from donor (D) to recipient (R) Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) workers was evaluated. Test chambers used in the fipronil uptake study were constructed from petri dishes containing autoclaved soil treated with 1 ppm [14C]fipronil (1.14 microCi of total radioactivity per petri dish), distilled water, and R. flavipes workers. Test chambers were held in environmental growth chambers preset at 12, 17, 22, 27, and 32 degrees C. For the fipronil transfer study, donor termites stained with Nile blue-A were exposed to soil treated with 1 ppm [14C]fipronil for 2 h. Donors were then combined with unexposed recipient termite workers at either 1D:5R, 1D:10R, or 1D:20R ratios. Test chambers consisted of a nest and feeding chamber connected by a piece of polyethylene tube and held in growth chambers at 12, 17, 22, 27, and 32 degrees C. Worker termites were sampled over time and the amount of [14C]fipronil present was measured by scintillation counting. Some degree of uptake and transfer occurred at all temperatures and ratios in this study. The highest level of uptake occurred by termites held at 22-32 degrees C, followed decreasingly by 17 and 12 degrees C. Maximum transfer of [14C]fipronil occurred at the higher ratios (1:5 > 1:10 > 1:20) of donors to recipients. Data presented in this study suggest that temperature is one of the key factors affecting the rate of uptake and subsequent horizontal transfer of [14C]fipronil in subterranean termites.     

Ontogenic potentialities of the worker caste in two sympatric subterranean termites in France

In termites, the capacity of workers to differentiate into neotenic reproductives is an important characteristic that deserves particular attention. To gain insight into the differentiation pathway, the potentialities of workers and the endocrinal changes during the formation of neotenics were compared in two sympatric termites, Reticulitermes flavipes and Reticulitermes grassei. After 1 year of development, 100% of R. flavipes worker groups produced neotenics against only 63% of R. grassei groups. The average production of female neotenics was significantly higher in R. flavipes worker groups compared with R. grassei groups and R. flavipes produced a greater proportion of female neotenics. Moreover, R. flavipes produced more offspring, not only because there were more females, but also because R. flavipes females were more productive. Moreover, the offspring produced by R. flavipes grew faster than the offspring of R. grassei. Both ecdysteroid and juvenile hormone (JH) titers varied significantly during the development of neotenics. The two species showed similar ecdysteroid titer variation patterns. However, the JH titer variation patterns strongly differed: in R. grassei, the concentration of JH increased in maturing neotenics then dropped in mature neotenics, whereas in R. flavipes, the level of JH was significantly higher than in R. grassei and remained constantly high in mature neotenics. Overall, these results suggest that these two species differ strongly in many life-history traits as well as in the physiological control of their caste differentiation system. Possible origins and mechanisms of such interspecific variations are discussed, as well as their evolutionary and ecological consequences.     

The Termite Gut Microflora as an Oxygen Sink: Microelectrode Determination of Oxygen and pH Gradients in Guts of Lower and Higher Termites

Clark-type oxygen microelectrodes and glass pH microelectrodes, each with a tip diameter of <=10 (mu)m, were used to obtain high-resolution profiles of oxygen concentrations and pH values in isolated termite guts. Radial oxygen profiles showed that oxygen penetrated into the peripheral hindgut contents up to about 150 to 200 (mu)m below the epithelial surface in both the lower termite Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) and the higher termite Nasutitermes lujae (Wasmann). Only the central portions (comprising less than 40% of the total volume) of the microbe-packed, enlarged hindgut compartments ("paunches") were completely anoxic, indicating that some members of the hindgut microbiota constitute a significant oxygen sink. From the slopes of the oxygen gradients, we estimated that the entire paunches (gut tissue plus resident microbiota) of R. flavipes and N. lujae accounted for 21 and 13%, respectively, of the respiratory activity of the intact animals. Axial oxygen profiles also confirmed that in general, only the paunches were anoxic in their centers, whereas midguts and posterior hindgut regions contained significant amounts of oxygen (up to about 50 and 30% air saturation, respectively). A remarkable exception to this was the posterior portion of an anterior segment (the P1 segment) of the hindgut of N. lujae, which was completely anoxic despite its small diameter ((apprx=)250 (mu)m). Axial pH profiles of the guts of Nasutitermes nigriceps (Haldeman) and Microcerotermes parvus (Haviland) revealed that there were extreme shifts as we moved posteriorly from the midgut proper (pH (apprx=)7) to the P1 segment of the hindgut (pH >10) and then to the P3 segment (paunch; pH (apprx=)7). The latter transition occurred at the short enteric valve (P2 segment) and within a distance of less than 500 (mu)m. In contrast, R. flavipes, which lacks a readily distinguishable P1 segment, did not possess a markedly alkaline region, and the pH around the midgut-hindgut junction was circumneutral. The oxic status of the peripheral hindgut lumen and its substantial oxygen consumption, together with previous reports of large numbers of aerobic and facultatively anaerobic bacteria in the hindgut microflora, challenge the notion that termite hindguts are a purely anoxic environment and, together with the steep axial pH gradients in higher termites, refine our concept of this tiny microbial habitat.     

Isolation of cockroach Phe-Gly-Leu-amide allatostatins from the termite Reticulitermes flavipes and their effect on juvenile hormone synthesis

Immunoreactivity to cockroach Diploptera punctata allatostatin-7 (Dippu AST-7) has been demonstrated previously in axons innervating the corpora allata of the termite Reticulitermes flavipes. This peptide and Dippu AST-11 inhibited juvenile hormone (JH) synthesis by corpora allata (CA) of brachypterous neotenic reproductives (secondary reproductives) of termites. The present study shows that R. flavipes CA are also inhibited by Dippu AST-2, AST-5, AST-8, and AST-9 at approximately the same rank order of potency as demonstrated in D. punctata. Another allatostatin from Periplaneta americana (Peram AST-12) also inhibits JH synthesis by R. flavipes CA. Sensitivity to the allatostatins is higher in glands with low rates of JH synthesis than in those with relatively high JH synthetic rates as has been demonstrated in CA from male and female secondary reproductives as well as in those from non-egg-laying and egg-laying females. The identical inhibitory effects of R. flavipes brain extract on CA from both D. punctata and R. flavipes and the isolation and identification of five cockroach allatostatins (Dippu AST-1, AST-2, AST-5, AST-8, and Peram AST-12) from termite brain extract reflect the close relationship between cockroaches and termites.     

Survey of metabolic reserves, stored uric acid, and water content from field populations of subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) from Georgia

Total levels of uric acid, soluble proteins, lipid, glycogen, and body water were determined for Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) workers 24-72 h after field collection. In addition, levels of biological molecules were compared for termites collected from the same inspection ports within 24 h after field collection, and after laboratory captivity of 6 or 9 mo. Uric acid content, described in a previous study as steadily accumulating in R. flavipes termites in captivity, was found to be low or undetectable in workers tested after 6 or 9 mo in the laboratory.     

Repellent effects of isoborneol on subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in soils of different composition

The repellence of the plant-derived bicyclic monoterpenoid isoborneol on subterranean termites was assessed in short-term laboratory bioassays. Depending on concentration, application of isoborneol to different soil types was efficient in creating repellent soil barriers, which were not penetrated by workers of Reticulitermes santonensis De Feytaud or R. flavipes Kollar within 2 wk after adding the substance to the substrate. Isoborneol-treated barriers did not affect termite survival. The bioavailability of the active ingredient decreased with increasing clay content of the soil. Evaporation of isoborneol from treated soil increased with increasing particle size of the substrate and could be reduced by covering the soil surface.     

Feeding inhibition and mortality in Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) after exposure to imidacloprid-treated soils

Feeding inhibition and mortality of Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) exposed to sand, sandy loam, loam, and silty clay loam soils treated with several concentrations of imidacloprid were studied using bioassay techniques under laboratory conditions. Termite workers stopped feeding after exposure to treated soils. Differences in feeding reduction varied among the soil types. Based on the magnitude of the F-statistics, the effect of imidacloprid on the reduction of termite feeding was greatest in sand followed by sandy loam, loam, and silty clay loam soils. Soil properties such as organic matter content, silt and clay proportions, pH, and cation exchange capacity were suggested to affect the bioavailability of imidacloprid. Similar soil effects on mortality were observed in termites continuously exposed to treated soil for 21 d. In three of four soils tested, susceptibility to imidacloprid was not affected by the source of the termites tested.     

15N discrimination and the sensitivity of nitrogen fixation to changes in dietary nitrogen in Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae)

Xylophagous termites possess symbiotic bacteria that fix atmospheric nitrogen (N(2)). Although symbiotic N(2) fixation is central to termite nutrition and ecologically important, it is energetically costly. Using stable isotopes, we tested the hypothesis that symbiotic N(2) fixation would decrease in workers of the eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes Kollar, which were exposed to high nitrogen diets. To calculate the isotope discrimination factor occurring as a result of digestion, Δ(dig), and which occurs as the result of N(2) fixation, Δ(fix), symbiotic N(2) fixation was inhibited via force feeding termites the antibiotic kanamycin. Antibiotic-treated termites and control (N(2)-fixing) termites were exposed to different concentrations of dietary N (0, 0.21, and 0.94% N), their (15)N signatures were obtained, and the percent nitrogen derived from the atmosphere within termite samples was calculated. As we hypothesized, symbiotic N(2) fixation rates were negatively correlated with dietary N, suggesting that high concentrations of dietary N suppressed symbiotic N(2) fixation in R. flavipes. A comparison of the (15)N isotope signatures of antibiotic-treated termites with their food sources demonstrated that Δ(dig) = 2.284‰, and a comparison of the (15)N isotope signatures of antibiotic-treated termites with control termites indicated that Δ(fix) = -1.238‰. These are the first estimates of Δ(dig) for R. flavipes, and the first estimate of Δ(fix) for any N(2)-fixing termite species.     

Interaction between the subterranean termite Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) and the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae in foraging arenas

The entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Metsch.) Sorokin was tested in the laboratory against field-collected groups of eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), in foraging arenas to determine the potential effect of a "trap and treat" protocol (trapping a part of the population, treating it with a biological control agent and releasing it back into the original population). Individual termites were treated with a suspension of M. anisopliae conidia and released back into the arenas containing untreated termites. After 5 d, 90% of the treated termites died in the arena, but untreated termites did not exhibit a significant increase in mortality within 90 d after release, indicating no transfer of viable M. anisopliae and no epizootic. Although M. anisopliae was isolated from the arenas after 90 d, the average number of fungal colony-forming units recovered was <0.1% of the conidia introduced.     

Laboratory performance and pharmacokinetics of the benzoylphenylurea noviflumuron in eastern subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae)

A benzoylphenylurea insect growth regulator with the common name noviflumuron was evaluated for use as a baiting toxicant against the eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar). Noviflumuron demonstrated significantly greater potency and faster speed of action compared with the commercial standard hexaflumuron. In addition, noviflumuron was not a feeding deterrent on filter paper at concentrations of up to 10,000 ppm. The rates of uptake, clearance, and insect-to-insect transfer of [14C] noviflumuron were measured in R. flavipes in laboratory assays and compared with those previously reported for [14C]hexaflumuron. Under a continuous exposure regime, the uptake profile for noviflumuron was similar to that for hexaflumuron, although the time period of maximal uptake was shorter for noviflumuron. Noviflumuron was cleared from termites in a first order process with a half-life of approximately 29 d, whereas the half-life of hexaflumuron was much shorter (8-9 d). Noviflumuron was efficiently transferred from treated to untreated termites by trophallaxis via kinetics similar to those reported for hexaflumuron; however, the systemic dose of noviflumuron required to result in toxicity of R. flavipes was found to be at least two- to three-fold less than that of hexaflumuron. The faster activity of noviflumuron compared with hexaflumuron in R. flavipes can be at least partially explained by the combination of slower clearance and greater intrinsic activity.     

Population density, species abundance, and breeding structure of subterranean termite colonies in and around infested houses in central North Carolina

Pressure from subterranean termites is known to vary geographically across the United States, but there are few quantitative studies concerning the threat of structural infestation for any geographic region. We assessed the number and locations of termite colonies present on 20 infested residential properties in central North Carolina, where subterranean termite pressure is considered to be heavy. This was achieved by using microsatellite markers to determine colony identity of termites collected over 6-14 mo from mud tubes in structures, below-ground monitors, and wood debris in the yard. In total, we identified 188 distinct colonies and determined their breeding structures. Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) was by far the most common species, accounting for nearly 90% of all colonies; the remaining colonies belonged to Reticulitermes hageni Banks and Reticulitermes virginicus (Banks). In four cases, there were two colonies infesting a structure simultaneously; in all other cases only a single colony was detected in the structure. Colony densities were high, averaging 62 colonies per ha (25 per acre) with a maximum of 185 colonies per ha (75 colonies per acre). Foraging ranges of R. flavipes and R. hageni colonies were generally small (<30 linear m), and most colonies were headed by a single pair of monogamous reproductives with nearly all the remaining colonies headed by relatively few inbreeding descendants of the original monogamous pair. These results provide the most detailed picture to date of the number, distribution, and colony characteristics of subterranean termite colonies located in and around residential structures.     

Temporal changes in chlorantraniliprole and indoxacarb in four midwestern soils and bioefficacy against the eastern subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae)

Temporal changes in indoxacarb and chlorantraniliprole were determined in four midwestern soils by simulating commercial field applications of termiticides. Indoxacarb (0.0625 and 0.125%) and chlorantraniliprole (0.05 and 0.10%) were applied to each soil type in a rotating cement mixer to ensure uniform distribution of active ingredient (AI). Temporal and spatial changes in termiticide concentrations were determined by sampling soil cores subdivided at different depths (0-20, 20-40, and 40-61 cm) at various intervals up to 705 d after application. Percentage loss of indoxacarb was initially greater (0-180 d) than losses after 180 d. The lowest indoxacarb extractable concentrations were detected in soils closest to the surface. Chlorantraniliprole losses with time from all soils were slower than indoxacarb, with no differences observed with soil type or depth. Bioefficacy was evaluated in laboratory glass tube bioassays that monitored the distance of termite penetration into treated soils and resulting eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), worker mortality. Bioassay data revealed that R. flavipes termites were unable to completely penetrate 50 mm of indoxacarb- and chlorantraniliprole treated soils at 0 d after treatment; however, termites were not deterred from foraging in these soils indicating no repellency to these termiticides. Termites completely penetrated (50 mm) soils treated with indoxacarb (0.0625%) by 360 d and complete penetration occurred in all soils treated with indoxacarb (0.0625 and 0.125%) by 705 d. Termites were unable to completely penetrate chlorantraniliprole-treated soils at 705 d. Mortality of termite workers was high in all chlorantraniliprole-treated soils at all sampling intervals. These data confirm that vertical differences in termiticide persistence occur in various soils.     

A Novel Strain of Steinernema riobrave (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) Possesses Superior Virulence to Subterranean Termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae)

Subterranean termites are major global pests of wood structures and wood products. Among the most economically important subterranean termite species in the US are Heterotermes aureus, Reticulitermes flavipes, and Coptotermes formosanus. In prior studies, the entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema riobrave strain 355, exhibited a high level of virulence to H. aureus compared with other nematode species. However, S. riobrave 355 was reported to be poorly or only moderately virulent to R. flavipes and C. formosanus, respectively. We hypothesized that other strains of S. riobrave may possess a high level of virulence to all three termite species. Under laboratory conditions we compared three novel strains of S. riobrave (3-8b, 7-12, and TP) with the 355 strain for virulence to H. aureus, R. flavipes, and C. formosanus workers. H. aureus was very susceptible to all the S. riobrave strains, and termites in all nematode treatments were dead after 4 d. The TP strain of S. riobrave caused greater mortality in R. flavipes and C. formosanus compared to the other nematode strains. Specifically, the TP strain caused 75% and 91% mortality in R. flavipes and C. formosanus, respectively, which was more than 300% and 70% higher than the mortality caused by other strains. Additional studies are warranted to determine the ability of S. riobrave (TP) to control the targeted termite species under field conditions.     

Ability of canine termite detectors to locate live termites and discriminate them from non-termite material

Dogs were trained to detect Eastern subterranean termites, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar), using the United States Customs method of scent detection dog training modified with a food reward. Dogs were tested with various numbers of Eastern subterranean termites placed in vented PVC containers. Trained dogs were 95.93% accurate in finding > or = 40 Eastern subterranean termite workers (positive indications) and incorrectly indicated the presence of termites in 2.69% of the containers without termites. Multiple species of termites [dark southern subterranean, R. virginicus (Banks); Formosan subterranean, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki; powderpost, Cryptotermes cavifrons Banks; and southeastern drywood termites, Incisitermes snyderi (Light)], were similarly evaluated. Dogs trained to locate Eastern subterranean termites were also 100% accurate in finding dark southern subterranean termites, 98.89% accurate in finding Formosan subterranean termites, 97.33% accurate in finding powderpost termites, and 88.89% accurate in finding southeastern drywood termites. Dogs were able to discriminate live termites from non-termite material. Trained dogs' false response rate was 25.33% to Eastern subterranean termite-damaged wood, 6.67% to American cockroaches, Periplaneta americana (L.), and 2.67% to Florida carpenter ants, Camponotus floridanus Buckley.     

Genetic analysis of the breeding system of an invasive subterranean termite, Reticulitermes santonensis, in urban and natural habitats

Reticulitermes santonensis is a subterranean termite that invades urban areas in France and elsewhere where it causes damage to human-built structures. We investigated the breeding system, colony and population genetic structure, and mode of dispersal of two French populations of R. santonensis. Termite workers were sampled from 43 and 31 collection points, respectively, from a natural population in west-central France (in and around the island of Oleron) and an urban population (Paris). Ten to 20 workers per collection point were genotyped at nine variable microsatellite loci to determine colony identity and to infer colony breeding structure. There was a total of 26 colonies, some of which were spatially expansive, extending up to 320 linear metres. Altogether, the analysis of genotype distribution, F-statistics and relatedness coefficients suggested that all colonies were extended families headed by numerous neotenics (nonwinged precocious reproductives) probably descended from pairs of primary (winged) reproductives. Isolation by distance among collection points within two large colonies from both populations suggested spatially separated reproductive centres with restricted movement of workers and neotenics. There was a moderate level of genetic differentiation (F(ST) = 0.10) between the Oleron and Paris populations, and the number of alleles was significantly higher in Oleron than in Paris, as expected if the Paris population went through bottlenecks when it was introduced from western France. We hypothesize that the diverse and flexible breeding systems found in subterranean termites pre-adapt them to invade new or marginal habitats. Considering that R. santonensis may be an introduced population of the North American species R. flavipes, a breeding system consisting primarily of extended family colonies containing many neotenic reproductives may facilitate human-mediated spread and establishment of R. santonensis in urban areas with harsh climates.     

Behavioral responses of two subterranean termite species (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) to instant freezing or chilling temperatures

The behavioral responses to instant freezing or chilling temperatures and survivorship of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, and the Eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar), were studied using a novel experimental design that closely simulated subterranean termites' natural in-ground environment. Both termite species responded to changes in temperature by exhibiting a downward mass movement from the cold to warmer area of constant temperature. However, the degrees of response were specific to the species and temperature regimen. Approximately 88 and 96% of R. flavipes escaped from instant 0 degrees C and chilling regimens (from 24 to 0 degrees C at a rate of 1 degrees C/h or 1 degrees C/12 h), respectively, compared with approximately 77 and 91% of C. formosanus. No significant difference was detected between the two cooling regimens in either termite species. Controls resulted in a relatively even distribution within test tubes in both termite species. The small portion of the termites that did not escape endured a cold coma at a 24-h 0 degrees C and had low mortality of 2.2 and <1% in R. flavipes and <5.2 and <3% in C. formosanus at instant and chilling regimens, respectively. This result may have implications for understanding group intelligence and decision making evolved by subterranean termites to survive temporary freezing cold.