Seasonal and ontogenetic dynamics in trophic transmission of parasites

Transmission rates from the intermediate (amphipods) to the definitive hosts (fish) were quantified for two helminth species ( Cyathocephalus truncatus , Cestoda, and Cystidicola farionis , Nematoda) both seasonally and through the ontogeny of the final hosts (arctic charr, Salvelinus alpinus , and brown trout, Salmo trutta ). Amphipods ( Gammarus lacustris ) were important prey for both fish species, especially in the autumn. Both parasite species had low infection levels in amphipods compared to high abundance in fish. The seasonal variations in transmission rate of C. truncatus procercoids from amphipods to fish were in accordance with the observed abundance in fish hosts, being highest in the autumn and lowest during late winter and early summer. During summer, however, the estimated monthly transmission rates of C. truncatus were higher than the observed infection levels in the fish, suggesting restricted establishment success and shorter development time and longevity of the cestode in fish at higher temperatures. The accumulated transmission of C. farionis over the ontogeny of arctic charr was similar to the observed age-specific infection levels, reflecting a high establishment success and longevity of this parasite in charr. In contrast, brown trout exhibited an infection level that was much lower than the estimated transmission rates, suggesting a high resistance against C. farionis in these fish. The magnitudes of the estimated transmission rates were sufficient to explain the paradoxical contrast between low infection levels in the intermediate and high in the final hosts.     

Selective predation on parasitized prey--a comparison between two helminth species with different life-history strategies.

In Lake Fjellfr?svatn, northern Norway, the larval helminths Cyathocephalus truncatus and Cystidicola farionis use Gammarus lacustris as intermediate hosts and Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) as final hosts. There was sampled 1,433 live G. lacustris from the lake and 1,964 G. lacustris from stomach contents of the charr. Prevalence of infection were, respectively, 0.49% and 3.72% for C. truncatus, and 0.21% and 0.20% for C. farionis. Usually, only 1 parasite was present in each host, and the 2 parasite species never co-occurred. Gammarus lacustris amphipods parasitized by C. truncatus were positively selected by the Arctic charr and were consumed approximately 8 times as often as were the unparasitized amphipods or the amphipods infected with C. farionis. This suggests that G. lacustris amphipods infected with C. truncatus larvae are more susceptible to predation than noninfected specimens, probably because of parasite-induced alterations in behavior or visibility. Alternatively, this could also be explained by selection toward the largest G. lacustris specimens observed, which are also the most frequently parasitized amphipods. However, the data show clearly that this was not a result of size-selective predation by the charr. In contrast, the presence of C. farionis did not increase the susceptibility to predation of its intermediate host. The discrepancy between the 2 helminth species supports the hypothesis that parasite-increased susceptibility to predation is related to the life history strategies of the parasites.     

Aggregation of helminths: the role of feeding behavior of fish hosts

Individual Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) from Fjellfr?svatn, northern Norway, could be categorized by their stomach contents as zooplanktivores or benthivores. Feeding specialization among these fish was evident from negative correlations between helminths transmitted by pelagic copepods (Diphyllobothrium dendriticum and D. ditremum) and those transmitted by the benthic amphipod Gammarus lacustris (Cystidicola farionis and Cyathocephalus truncatus). Occurrences of parasite species acquired from the same types of invertebrate were positively correlated in the fish. Strong relationships among habitat use, diet, and helminth infections among the Arctic charr indicated persistent foraging patterns involving long-term habitat use and feeding specialization. The distribution of all parasite species was highly aggregated in the fish samples, measured by the exponent k of the fitted negative binomial distributions (range: 0.5-7.5) and the variance-to-mean ratios (s2/mean, range: 5-85). Charr specializing on either copepods or Gammarus predominantly contributed to high-intensity class intervals within the overall frequency distributions of the corresponding parasite species. Such fish had low infection intensities of helminths transmitted by other prey organisms. The detailed analyses of the parasite frequency distributions for fish with different habitat or feeding preferences evidently show how heterogeneity in trophic behavior contributes strongly to the commonly observed aggregation of helminths among hosts under natural conditions.     

Clinostomum complanatum (Trematoda: Clinostomatidae) in five new fish hosts in Japan.

Metacercariae of Clinostomum complanatum were found in six species of natural freshwater fishes collected at Koyama Pond in Tottori City of Tottori Prefecture, Japan. Five of these fish species are reported here as new records for second intermediate hosts of C. complanatum in Japan: the silver crucian carp (Carassius gibelio langsdorfi), the deepbodied crucian carp (Carassius cuvieri), the carp (Cyprinus carpio), the topmouth gudgeon (Pseudorasbora parva) and the rose bitterling (Rhodeus ocelatus).     

Stocking hatchery‐reared brown trout in different densities into a wild population – a comparison of growth and movement

In spring 2001 and 2002 a small stream was stocked with tagged hatchery‐reared yearling brown trout ( Salmo trutta ), in order to study their influence on the resident brown trout population. The stream was separated into six sections: two sections without stocking, two sections where stocking doubled the trout population and two sections where the fish population was quadrupled. The working hypothesis was that due to food limitation (competition) growth of the wild fish will be negatively influenced by stocking, and wild fish will be displaced by the (possibly more aggressive) hatchery fish. Surprisingly, growth rate of wild and stocked fish of the same age was similar and independent of stocking density. Two main reasons may be responsible for this finding: only a low percentage of the stocked fish remained in the stream, and food was not limited during summer. Only 12–19% of the stocked fish were recaptured after six months, in contrats to 40–70% of one‐year old and up to 100% of older wild trout. The wild fish were not displaced by hatchery‐reared fish: During summer the wild fish remained more or less stationary, whereas most of the stocked trout had left their release site. The results indicate that in a natural stream stocking of hatchery reared brown trout does not influence negatively growth and movement of the wild fish independent of stocking density.     

Acanthocephala from lake fishes in Wisconsin: ecology and host relationships of Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli (Pomphorhynchidae)

Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli Linkins in Van Cleave, 1919, was considerably more common in fishes of the river-connected Tichigan Lake than of the landlocked Silver Lake, southeastern Wisconsin. It is reported from 17 species of principal, accessory, and occasional definitive hosts (new record in Moxostoma carinatum) and from 13 species of paratenic hosts (new records in Amia calva, Ictalurus punctatus, Lepomis cyanellus, and Pomoxis nigromaculatus). Infection patterns were influenced by fish species, feeding behavior, temperature, availability of intermediate host, type of water body, fish movement, and changes in fish host community. Host roles are not fixed but are often interchangeable. A seasonal cycle in prevalence, intensity, and maturation was evident, with greatest abundance and maturation during summer and recruitment during summer and autumn. Recruitment of new infections, development, and release of eggs, however, occurred all year. Sex ratio changed from near equal in new infections to one more highly in favor of females in older adults. Female fish were considerably more frequently and heavily infected than males. No relationship with fish age (size) was evident. Worms were mostly attached in posterior intestinal locations but initial establishment sites correlated with temperature. Translocation of P. bulbocolli due to competitive exclusion in concurrent infections was not observed. The significance of extraintestinal larval forms in the cycle of transmission was noted.     

Stocked trout have minimal effects on littoral invertebrate assemblages of productive fish‐bearing lakes: a whole‐lake BACI study

1. Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss [Walbaum]) is commonly stocked as a sport fish throughout the world but can have serious negative effects on native species, especially in headwater systems. Productive fish‐bearing lakes represent a frequently stocked yet infrequently studied system, and effects of trout in these systems may differ from those in headwater lakes. 2. We used a Before‐After Control‐Impact (BACI) design to determine how stocked trout affected assemblage‐level and taxon‐level biomass, abundance and average length of littoral invertebrates in a stocked lake relative to three unstocked control lakes in the boreal foothills of Alberta, Canada. Lakes were studied 1 year before and for 2 years after stocking. Because characteristics of productive fish‐bearing lakes should buffer impacts of introduced fish, we predicted that trout would not affect assemblage‐level structure of littoral invertebrates but might reduce the abundance or average length of large‐bodied taxa frequently consumed by trout. 3. Relative to the unstocked control lakes, biomass, but not abundance, of the littoral invertebrate assemblage was affected indirectly by trout through increases of some taxa after trout stocking. At the individual taxon‐level, trout stocking did not affect most (23 of the 27) taxa, with four taxa increasing in abundance or biomass after stocking. Only one taxon, Chironomidae, showed evidence of size‐selective predation by trout, being consumed frequently by trout and decreasing significantly in average length after stocking. 4. Our results contrast with the strong negative effects of trout stocking on invertebrate assemblages commonly reported from headwater lakes. A combination of factors, including large and robust native populations of forage fish, the generalised diet of trout, overwinter aeration, relatively high productivity and dense macrophyte beds, likely works in concert to reduce potentially negative effects of stocked trout in these systems. As such, productive, fish‐bearing lakes may represent a suitable system for trout stocking, especially where native sport fish populations are lacking.     

Density‐dependent growth in hatchery‐reared brown trout released into a natural stream

Hatchery‐reared brown trout Salmo trutta stocked in a natural stream in addition to resident wild brown trout grew more slowly than those stocked with an experimentally reduced density of brown wild trout. In both cases, hatchery‐reared brown trout grew more slowly than resident wild fish in control sections. Mortality and movements did not differ among the three categories of fish. The results showed that growth of stocked hatchery‐reared brown trout parr was density‐dependent, most likely as a consequence of increased competition. Thus, supplementary release of hatchery‐reared fish did not necessarily increase biomass.     

Histochemistry of glycoconjugates in mucous cells of Salmo trutta uninfected and naturally parasitized with intestinal helminths

Mucus secreted onto the surface of the intestine forms a physical barrier to invading parasites so that a possible attachment of helminths to the surface is prevented and their expulsion by peristalsis facilitated. In mammals, intestinal parasites induce hyperplasia and hypertrophy of intestine goblet cells and provoke changes in the mucus composition. In fish, this topic has received less attention. In the present investigation, histochemical methods were employed to compose intestinal mucous cell numbers and their glycoconjugate composition were compared by uninfected brown trout Salmo trutta and in S. trutta parasitized with Cyathocephalus truncatus or Pomphorhynchus laevis. When P. laevis was present in the intestine of the brown trout, the total mucous cell number, and the number of mucous cells containing acid or mixed glycoconjugates were significantly enhanced. No significant change in the total mucous cell number was detected in the intestine of fish parasitized with C. truncatus in comparison with uninfected brown trout. A significant increase was observed in the number of both acid (especially sulphated) and mixed glycoconjugates containing mucous cells as well as a significant decrease in the number of neutral glycoconjugates containing mucous cells. When intestinal helminths were present, the thickness of the adherent mucous gel increased. In a limited number of other fish species, the occurrence of gill and intestinal parasites has been reported to increase the mucosal glycoconjugate secretions. Our study is the first quantitative report on the effects of intestinal helminths on the density of mucous cells and mucus composition in a fish species.     

The status of brown and rainbow trout, Salmo trutta and S. gairdneri as hosts of the acanthocephalan, Pomphorhynchus laevis

The status of brown and rainbow trout as hosts of Pomphorhynchus laevis was studied in the field and by means of laboratory investigations. Field data indicated that rainbow trout might belong to the group of preferred hosts of P. laevis , whereas brown trout belonged to the group in which the parasite achieved less than optimal growth and maturation. This was confirmed by laboratory infections. In rainbow trout P. laevis attained up to three times the growth rate in brown trout and maturation occurred whereas in brown trout establishment was lower, growth slower and no parasites matured. Changes in the behaviour of infected Gammarus pulex induced by the presence of P. laevis cystacanths were such as to render the shrimps more vulnerable to predation by trout and other surface and mid-water feeding fish, and selective predation upon infeged G. pulex by fish was demonstrated. nvestigations into the stimuli necessary for eversion of cystacanths of P. laevis revealed that the most important factor was a non-specific component of bile, and it was concluded that cystacanths were likely to evert in any species of fish. Recognition of the different status of brown and rainbow trout as hosts of P. laevis still fails to explain some peculiarities in the distribution of the parasite in the British Isles, where in Britain it occurs in trout in only one river but in Ireland in all rivers throughout the country. It is suggested that the Irish parasites may constitute a different strain of P. laevis , since they use a different species of intermediate host and are better able to survive in brown trout.     

Establishing and maintaining the trout fishery at Rutland Water

Rutland Water was stocked with trout in 1975 after removing the existing fish populations. Growth and survival of rainbow and brown trout are compared with the reservoir's filling regime, and re-colonisation by other fish species is described. The use of angler success as an indicator of fish stock density and its management is discussed.     

Evaluation of the contribution of supplemental plantings of brown trout Salmo trutta (L.) to a self-sustaining fishery in the Sydenham River, Ontario, Canada

An autumn planting of 4000 tagged yearling brown trout Salmo trutta (L.) in 1969 resulted in an over-winter survival of 26%, an angler recovery the following year of 8·1 % and made up 22 % of the March, 1970 standing population of the species. August standing populations of brown trout increased from 142 trout/ha (17·6 kg/ha) in 1969 to 360 trout/ha (39·3 kg/ha in 1970 while angler harvest of the species increased from 61 trout/ha (12·7 kg/ha) at a rate of 0·26 fish/h to 89 trout/ha (18·5 kg/ha) at a rate of 0·34/h. Using angler recovery and standing population as criteria the planting contributed substantially to the fishery. Actual contribution of stocked trout however, is questioned after detailed analysis of resident population structure and the potential of natural recruitment. It is suggested that the true benefit of stocked trout may be measured by the presence of those stocked fish in excess of the number of resident trout of that size predictable from a normal length distribution curve in waters with self-sustaining populations. Complexities in evaluating the merits of supplemental plantings of hatchery-reared brown trout to existing stream fisheries are examined.     

Observations on the dietary habits of wild and stocked brown trout, Salmo trutta L., in Irish lakes

The dietary habits and feeding rates of wild and stocked brown trout were compared for populations in a number of Irish lakes. Wild trout and stocked fish, which had been present in a fishery for 12 months or longer, tend to feed on the same dietary items at similar rates. Stocked fish in their immediate post-planting period (1–14 days) ate less than both the wild trout and established planted fish. In some instances recently stocked fish appear to have a preference for surface food items. They also consumed stones and detritic material. Data indicate that stocked fish adopted a natural diet in less than 5 months. Results are discussed in relation to angling crops of wild and stocked fish and the comparative success of autumn and spring plantings of salmonids.     

西藏黑斑原鮡消化道寄生蠕虫的群落结构和感染情况

为了解西藏特有鱼类黑斑原鮡(Glyptosternum maculatum)消化道寄生蠕虫的群落结构和感染情况, 于2019年5—8月对383尾黑斑原鮡进行了调查。在黑斑原鮡消化道中共发现7种寄生蠕虫, 分别为深槽绦虫未定种(Bothriocephalus sp.)、原头绦虫未定种(Proteocephalus sp.)、异肉吸虫未定种(Allocreadium sp.)、新棘吻虫未定种(Neoechinorhynchus sp.)、裸鲤棘头虫(Echinorhynchus gymnocyprii)、Contracaecum eudyptulae和杆咽线虫未定种(Rhabdochona sp.), 并对各个物种的形态特征进行了描述。将黑斑原鮡按整个群体、不同性别和不同全长群体进行划分, 分别对其消化道寄生蠕虫的群落多样性和优势虫种进行分析, 并对各寄生蠕虫物种的感染情况进行统计。结果表明: 在黑斑原鮡群体中, 消化道寄生蠕虫群落的Shannon-Wiener指数为1.53, Berger-Parker指数为0.37, 优势物种为C. eudyptulae, 其感染数量、感染率、感染强度和平均丰度均为最高; 在黑斑原鮡不同性别群体中, Shannon-Wiener指数为0.26—1.57, Berger-Parker指数为0.34—0.93, 优势物种为C. eudyptulae, 雄性群体中新棘吻虫未定种也为优势虫种, 两者的感染率和平均丰度均较高; 在黑斑原鮡不同全长群体中, Shannon-Wiener指数为0.22—1.59, Berger-Parker指数为0.34—0.94, 优势物种为C. eudyptulae或新棘吻虫未定种, 感染率和平均丰度基本以二者为最高。研究进一步明确了西藏鱼类寄生虫的种类组成和寄生特点, 为研究体内寄生蠕虫的环境适应性及与宿主的协同进化提供基础资料。     

Effect of Lernaea cyprinacea (Crustacea: Copepoda) on stocked rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

Prevalence, intensity and pathogenesis of Lernaea cyprinacea (anchorworm) in stocked rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fingerlings were monitored annually for 4 yr (1981 to 1984) in East Canyon Reservoir, Utah (USA). Anchorworms were first detected in midsummer each year and were most abundant in the fall. The mean parasite intensity was highest in October 1982 (19 anchorworms per fish); in other years, maximum density was 7 to 9. The dorsal and caudal areas of the fish were the most heavily parasitized. The histological response to parasite attachment included an infectious granuloma similar to that reported in other fish hosts. Bacteria were not found in the kidneys of fish before stocking, but afterward bacteria that were presumptively identified as belonging to the genus Aeromonas, were found in the kidneys of up to 45% of the parasitized fish. Most (94%) anglers noticed the anchorworms, but few (8%) discarded parasitized fish. Some 28% used special cleaning techniques to prepare fish but 49% did nothing special to clean them. Lernaeosis probably had little effect on the fishery management goals for the reservoir.     

Invasive trout increase the climatic sensitivity of zooplankton communities in naturally fishless lakes

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Food borne parasites as indicators of trophic segregation between Arctic charr and brown trout

The habitat and diet choice and the infection (prevalence and abundance) of trophically transmitted parasites were compared in Arctic charr and brown trout living sympatrically in two lakes in northern Norway. Arctic charr were found in all main lake habitats, whereas the brown trout were almost exclusively found in the littoral zone. In both lakes the parasite fauna reflected the niche segregation between trout and charr. Surface insects were most common in the diet of trout, but transmit few parasites, and accordingly the brown trout had a relatively low diversity and abundance of parasites. Parasites transmitted by benthic prey such as Gammarus and insect larva, were common in both salmonid host species. Copepod transmitted parasites were much more common in Arctic charr, as brown trout did not include zooplankton in their diets. Parasite species that may use small fish as transport hosts, were far more abundant in piscivorous fish, especially brown trout. The seasonal dynamics in parasite infection were also consistent with the developments in the diet throughout the year. The study demonstrates that the structure of parasite communities of charr and the trout is highly dependent on shifts in habitat and diet of their hosts both on an annual base and through the ontogeny, in addition to the observed niche segregation between the two salmonid species.     

Factors influencing infection patterns of trophically transmitted parasites among a fish community: host diet,host–parasite compatibility or both?

Parasite infection patterns were compared with the occurrence of their intermediate hosts in the diet of nine sympatric fish species in a New Zealand lake. Stomach contents and infection levels of three gastrointestinal helminth species were examined from the entire fish community. The results highlighted some links between fish host diet and the flow of trophically transmitted helminths. Stomach contents indicated that all but one fish species were exposed to these helminths through their diet. Host feeding behaviour best explained infection patterns of the trematode Coitocaecum parvum among the fish community. Infection levels of the nematode Hedruris spinigera and the acanthocephalan Acanthocephalus galaxii, however, were not correlated with host diets. Host specificity is thus likely to modulate parasite infection patterns. The data indicate that host diet and host-parasite compatibility both contribute to the distribution of helminths in the fish community. Furthermore, the relative influence of encounter (trophic interactions between prey and predator hosts) and compatibility (host suitability) filters on infection levels appeared to vary between host-parasite species associations. Therefore, understanding parasite infection patterns and their potential impacts on fish communities requires determining the relative roles of encounter and compatibility filters within and across all potential host-parasite associations.     

Invasive rainbow trout affect habitat use,feeding efficiency,and spatial organization of warpaint shiners

Rainbow trout have been introduced to six of the seven continents and currently are widely stocked for sport fishing. Despite their broad distribution, outside of New Zealand, little is known about the effects of rainbow trout on native species, especially fishes. We conducted experiments in an artificial stream to assess hypotheses that stocked rainbow trout significantly affected: (1) mesohabitat use, (2) foraging success, (3) social behavior, and (4) spatial organization of warpaint shiners (Luxilus coccogenis) a common native minnow found in southern Appalachian streams, with similar patterns of microhabitat use to rainbow trout. We replicated experiments at high and low natural densities (two and five warpaint shiners) and spring/fall (12 °C) and summer (17 °C) temperatures. Treatments included: (1) a control (five warpaint shiners), (2) trout (five warpaint shiners and one rainbow trout), (3) large fish control (five warpaint shiners and one river chub) and (4) density control (six warpaint shiners). The presence of rainbow trout produced a shift by warpaint shiners from pool mesohabitats to shallower, higher velocity habitats with more variable substrata, as well as reduced prey capture success, feeding efficiency, and distance from the front of the tank (i.e., warpaint shiners moved closer to food release points), and increased the distance to the additional fish (i.e., avoidance of the rainbow trout). Negative effects on foraging behaviors were stronger in 12 °C treatments. In a realistic stream flume the presence of rainbow trout produced effects that likely influenced individual fitness of warpaint shiners. The potential effects of stocking rainbow trout on native non-game fishes, such as warpaint shiners should be assessed when implementing or evaluating stocking programs.     

Low stocking incidence in brown trout populations from northwestern Spain monitored by LDH-5* diagnostic marker

Brown trout Salmo trutta is one of the most valuable species inhabiting river drainages in Galicia (northwestern Spain). The influence of man, through overfishing and pollution, is thought to have caused the decline of trout in Galician rivers. To balance the possible population decline, Galician rivers have been stocked extensively with a brown trout stock of German origin during the last 30 years. In this study, the incidence of stocking practices has been investigated by an LDH-5 * genetic marker. A very low number of stocked individuals have been observed within river populations, despite the long period of repopulation. Only eight out of the 44 populations analysed showed a limited number of individuals of hatchery origin. Most stocked individuals detected were 0+ age, and showed a poor condition factor ( K < 1). Environmental factors (muscular stamina and food habits) and genetic factors (different selective conditions in hatchery medium) are invoked to explain the low viability of hatchery fish Observed in this Study.