Amylostereum laevigatum associated with the Japanese horntail,Urocerus japonicus

The fungus associated with the Japanese horntail,Urocerus japonicus, in Kochi, Kagawa and Ehime Prefectures was studied. Cultures isolated from the mycangia of 113 adult females of the horntail showed the same cultural characteristics. Four of basidiocarps found on felled logs ofCryptomeria japonica were identifieds asAmylostereum laevigatum based on morphological characteristics. This was the first record ofA. laevigatum from Japan. The cultures isolated from the basidiocarps had the same cultural characteristics as those from the mycangia ofU. japonicus. One mycangial isolate produced basidiocarps on artificially inoculated stem segments ofCr. japonica after a 6-mo incubation and was identified asA. laevigatum. One isolate from the basidiocarps ofA. laevigatum and one from the mycangium ofU. japonicus were artificially inoculated into five trees each ofChamaecyparis obtusa andCr. japonica. The wood of all inoculated trees showed discoloration, with no difference in shape and pattern of discoloration between the two isolates. The inoculated fungi were reisolated from the areas of discoloration in the inoculated trees.     

Downhill movement of litter and its implication for ecological studies in three types of forest in Japan

The amount of litter moving down the slope was measured in three types of forest, together with an examination of rain as a factor in bringing this about. The three forest types were a natural mixed stand ofPinus densiflora and hardwood trees (plot A), aCryptomeria japonica plantation (plot S) and aChamaecyparis obtusa plantation (plot H). The amount of moved litter was quite large in plots A and H, but relatively small in plot S. The rain factor had little influence on litter movement in plot A, but was the main cause of movement in plot S and (especially) plot H. It is suggested that measurement of litter input and output not only by traps above ground level, but also by ones on the ground is essential for determining the cycling of elements inC. obtusa forests. It is also suggested that the decomposition of leaf litter should be studied both on the soil surface and in the soil inC. obtusa forests.     

Localized cooling of stems induces latewood formation and cambial dormancy during seasons of active cambium in conifers

Background and Aims In temperate regions, trees undergo annual cycles of cambial growth, with periods of cambial activity and dormancy. Environmental factors might regulate the cambial growth, as well as the development of cambial derivatives. We investigated the effects of low temperature by localized cooling on cambial activity and latewood formation in two conifers, Chamaecyparis obtusa and Cryptomeria japonica.Methods A plastic rubber tube that contained cooled water was wrapped around a 30-cm-wide portion of the main stem of Chamaecyparis obtusa and Cryptomeria japonica trees during seasons of active cambium. Small blocks were collected from both cooled and non-cooled control portions of the stems for sequential observations of cambial activity and for anatomical measurements of cell morphology by light microscopy and image analysis.Key Results The effect of localized cooling was first observed on differentiating tracheids. Tracheids narrow in diameter and with significantly decreased cambial activity were evident 5 weeks after the start of cooling in these stems. Eight weeks after the start of cooling, tracheids with clearly diminished diameters and thickened cell walls were observed in these stems. Thus, localized low temperature induced narrow diameters and obvious thickening of secondary cell walls of tracheids, which were identified as latewood tracheids. Two months after the cessation of cooling, a false annual ring was observed and cambium became active again and produced new tracheids. In Cryptomeria japonica, cambial activity ceased earlier in locally cooled portions of stems than in non-cooled stems, indicating that the cambium had entered dormancy sooner in the cooled stems.Conclusions Artificial cooling of stems induced latewood formation and cessation of cambial activity, indicating that cambium and its derivatives can respond directly to changes in temperature. A decrease in the temperature of the stem is a critical factor in the control of cambial activity and xylem differentiation in trees.     

Effects of the common cormorant,phalacrocorax carbo,on evergreen forests in two nest sites at Lake Biwa,Japan

The effects of the habitation of the common cormorant on vegetation were evaluated in two colonies in Lake Biwa, central Japan. The state of the vegetation of each colony was classified arbitrarily into the following three types according to the appearance of the tree, shrub and herb layers; dense tree layer (Type 1), sparse tree layer and herb layer (Type 2), and sparse tree layer with dense herb layer (Type 3). The density of cormorant nesting was almost similar among the three types, except for part of Type 2. Trees, especially large ones on which cormorants nested, were found to be heavily damaged, and there were few seedlings and saplings found under the canopy trees.Chamaecyparis obtusa andCryptomeria japonica were more heavily damaged than other evergreen and deciduous trees. In the herb layer, only a few species such asReynoutria japonica orPhytolacca americana were abundant. These results suggest that the habitation of cormorants could simplify the structure and the species composition of forests.     

Notes on new Agaricales of Japan 1

Three new species of Agaricales are described and illustrated from eastern Honshu, Japan:Collybia effusa sp. nov. (sectionLevipedes), forming a distinctly sulcate-striate pileus and distant lamellae, was found on dead twigs ofCryptomeria japonica andCallicarpa japonica; Collybia macrosperma sp. nov., forming cylindrical-fusoid, relatively large-sized basidiospores and whitish basidiomata densely covered with fine, soft hairs, was found on dead fallen twigs in aCarpinus andQuercus forest:Marasmiellus, gregarius sp. nov (subsectionRamealini of sectionRameales), forming small, pale colored pilei and diverticulate cheilocystidia, was found on dead twigs ofHydrangea involucrata andTrachelospermum asiaticum.     

Winter blooming ofArtemisia. A 2-year survey in murcia (Spain)

This paper presents a 2-year survey ofArtemisia airborne pollen concentrations in Murcia. An importantArtemisia blooming taking place in winter is confirmed in Murcia (SE Spain). This phenomenon could explain the incidence of winter pollinosis in Murcia. On the other hand, for the first time, three consecutive pollen seasons ofArtemisia, corresponding to three different species (A. campestris, A. herba-alba andA. barrelieri) have been noted. Mathematical analyses show the relations between pollen concentrations ofArtemisia in summer and autumn, and precipitation occurring 6–8 weeks before. Blooming outsets seem to be related to cumulative percentage of isolation from 1 March. Meteorological factors do not seem to influence pollen concentration in any significant way once pollination has begun.     

The role of meteorological factors in determining the annual variation ofAlternaria andCladosporium spores in the atmosphere of Palencia, 1990–1992

A study was made of the daily content ofAlternaria andCladosporium spores in the atmosphere in Palencia city (Spain) for three consecutive years 1990–1992.Alternaria andCladosporium represented 55% of the total identified spores, presenting an annual distributional pattern of which the maximum values were reached in summer. Multiple regression analyses showed a positive correlation between minimum temperature andCladosporium spore concentrations, while forAlternaria there was a positive correlation with maximum temperature and a negative correlation with precipitation. Duncan's multiple range test among means ofAlternaria data indicated that winds coming from a northeasterly direction were associated with significantly higher concentrations the spores.     

Selection and microculture of single embryogenic cell clusters in japanese conifers: Picea jezoensis, Larix leptolepis and Cryptomeria japonica

Summary A microculture method for single embryogenic cell clusters was established for several Japanese conifer species, namely Picea jezoensis, Larix leptolepis and Cryptomeria japonica. Individual small, dense cell clusters were identified and picked up by a micromanipulator and cultured in 50 μl liquid medium in a 96-well culture plate. In all three species studied, a majority of the cell clusters actively proliferated within the wells. Maturation of somatic embryos was successful when the newly proliferated cell clusters were transferred to solid abscisic acid-containing medium. Thus, the small, dense cell clusters could be a useful morphological marker for cells capable of proliferation and differentiation.     

Seedling recruitment ofChamaecyparis obtusa andSciadopitys verticillata in different microenvironments in an old-growthSciadopitys verticillata forest

Seedling recruitment ofChamecyparis obtusa andSciadopitys verticillata in different microenvironments in an old-growthS. verticillata forest was studied for five years. Exposed mineral soil beneath a gap, which was newly created by a typhoon, supported the best seedling emergence forC. obtusa. S. verticillata seemed to require no specific microenvironment for its seedling emergence. Mortality of seedlings was higher for both species beneath a closed canopy, where all new seedlings ofC. obtusa died within a year after their emergence. Beneath the gap, mortality of seedlings was generally lower for both species, regardless of the presence of litter on the ground. The occurrence of saplings was more frequent forC. obtusa beneath the gaps and forS. verticillata beneath a closed canopy. Difference of seedling recruitment behaviour could maintain the coexistence ofC. obtusa andS. verticillata in the canopy layer of this forest in a non-equilibrium state caused by occasional disturbance.     

Differential recruitment of bivalve species in the northern Wadden Sea after the severe winter of 1995/96 and of subsequent milder winters

High recruitment of the bivalves Cerastoderma edule, Mytilus edulis, Macoma balthica and Mya arenaria in summer after severe winters is an often reported phenomenon in the Wadden Sea. After the severe winter of 1995/96 however, only Cerastoderma and Mytilus followed this pattern in the Sylt-R?m? Bight. Repeated sampling of Cerastoderma, Macoma and Mya following a severe (1995/96), a moderate (1996/97), and a mild winter (1997/98) revealed that early recruitment was highest after the mild winter. In Cerastoderma the eventual high recruitment at the end of summer 1996 was caused by reduced benthic mortality. Low recruitment of Macoma and Mya after the severe winter may have been caused by a higher susceptibility to epibenthic predation and/or a higher susceptibility to passive re-suspension than in Cerastoderma and Mytilus. In all cases, post-settlement processes were decisive for reproductive success. Received in revised form: 7 May 2001 Electronic Publication     

Biological characteristics ofCryptosporiopsis abietina on Hinoki cypress and its antagonistic effect to other microorganisms

In isolation tests on different parts of sound Hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa), the coelomyceteCryptosporiopsis abietina was isolated, mostly from immature cone scales and inner bark areas of branches and main stems. In isolation tests using branches or stems of 3-yr-old seedlings to 35-yr-old adult cypresses from various localities,C. abietina was isolated in 28 to 100% of the cypresses tested. It was also confirmed that the fungus rarely infects seeds of the cypress, and can survive in dried seeds for several years, though it is not a seed-borne fungus. No symptoms appeared in inoculation tests with the fungus on 8-yr-old cypress. In inoculation test in a greenhouse, reliable infection without symptoms was obtained on wounded cypress seedlings. These results reveal thatC. abietina is a common endophytic fungus in Hinoki cypress. Confrontation and volatile antagonistic tests in Petri dishes indicated that some isolates ofC. abietina produce antifungal substances in vitro. On these isolates, the reproduction of a mycophagous nematodeBursaphelenchus xylophilus was retarded. The results of inoculation tests suggest that the possibility ofC. abietina as a primary causal agent of the resinous stem canker of Hinoki cypress is low. The role ofC. abietina in the cypress is briefly discussed.     

Amounts and patterns of nucleotide variation within and between two Japanese conifers, sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) and hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) (Cupressaceae sensu lato)

Sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) and hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) are the most important timber species in Japan. To quantify and compare the level of nucleotide variation in these species, we investigated their variation at ten nuclear loci. Average values of nucleotide diversity at synonymous sites (π _SYN) found in sugi and hinoki were 0.0038 and 0.0069, respectively. However, although the average value of nucleotide diversity was higher in hinoki than in sugi, their average values of haplotype diversity were similar. Deviations from the standard neutral model were detected at two loci in hinoki using Tajima’s D, Fay and Wu’s H, and Strobeck’s S statistics, which seem to be due to its historical population structure. Levels of divergence between the two species at synonymous sites of the ten genes ranged from 0.121 to 0.566 (0.28 on average). These values positively correlated with their guanine + cytosine contents at third-codon positions of synonymous sites (%GC3s).     

Age structure and regeneration of old growthCryptomeria japonica forests on Yakushima Island

The regeneration process ofCryptomeria japonica forests was studied from surveys of age and initial growth of the coniferous stumps in plots of 2.66 ha in total on Yakushima Island, south Japan. The conifers germinated during particular regeneration periods each of which was shorter than 100 years. The periods repeated themselves several times in each plot, and conifers of each period formed patches. Both tree cutting and natural gap formation of the canopies initiated the regenerations. The saplings that were thought to have germinated before the initiation of the regeneration grew slowly. After the initiation, the saplings that germinated earlier grew more quickly. For the three codominant conifers:Cryptomeria japonica, Tsuga sieboldii, andAbies firma, the shade tolerance was inversely correlated with maximum age. Even the most shade-tolerantA. firma was a gap-dependent species in regeneration periods, and there were no species differences in the colonizing times during the regeneration period. Shade-intolerant long-lived species and shade-tolerant short-lived species coexisted as climax species, not as alternate species in the sere of succession.     

Seasonal growth activity of local and foreign gracilarioid strains in Israel

Six gracilarioid strains originating from different climatical environments were cultured in two cultivation systems: a short-term indoor one with a cross gradiant table, and a long-term outdoor one. Seasonal growth performances of the different strains were determined. The growth results in the two culture systems showed similar trends. The tropical species.Gracilaria cornea andG. cornea mutant, showed highest growth rates during summer and no growth at all during winter. The temperate species,Gracilaria verrucosa andGracilariopsis lemaneiformis, showed best growth performances during winter with small fluctuations between seasons. The subtropical speciesGracilaria conferta (local) showed seasonal growth fluctuations all over the year. The foreign species definitely did not acclimate under local conditions, but successfully preserved their original response to temperature. Regression equations confirmed that temperature was the dominant environmental variable in most of the gracilarioid strains. The growth rate results obtained showed encouraging prospects for high algal productivity as compared to other cultivation systems. Seasonal cultivation strategy ofGracilaria spp. in Israel is discussed.     

Seasonal variation in the diet of South African Galagos

The feeding behavior and diet of two species of bushbaby, Galago senegalensisand Galago crassicaudatus,in South Africa were examined in relation to seasonal changes in climate. The populations studied were allopatric, but both fed predominantly on Acaciagum and invertebrates. Data on their diet were collected by direct observation of a radiocollared female of each species and by analysis of fecal samples. Differences in diet were found between the species within seasons and within species between the seasons. Both spent more time gum-feeding in winter than in summer. Prey size and type differed between the species in summer but converged in winter. The quantity of insects taken was fairly similar between seasons for G. senegalensisbut dropped considerably for G. crassicaudatusin winter. These observations are interpreted in terms of interspecific differences in feeding strategies, which are considered to be a function of the difference in body size of the two galago species.     

Freezing behavior of xylem ray parenchyma cells in softwood species with differences in the organization of cell walls

Summary By cryo-scanning electron microscopy we examined the effects of the organization of the cell walls of xylem ray parenchyma cells on freezing behavior, namely, the capacity for supercooling and extracellular freezing, in various softwood species. Distinct differences in organization of the cell wall were associated with differences in freezing behavior. Xylem ray parenchyma cells with thin, unlignified primary walls in the entire region (all cells inSciadopitys verticillata and immature cells inPinus densiflora) or in most of the region (mature cells inP. densiflora and all cells inP. pariflora var.pentaphylla) responded to freezing conditions by extracellular freezing, whereas xylem ray parenchyma cells with thick, lignified primary walls (all cells inCrytomeria japonica) or secondary walls (all cells inLarix leptolepis) in most regions responded to freezing by supercooling. The freezing behavior of xylem ray parenchyma cells inL. leptolepis changed seasonally from supercooling in summer to extracellular freezing in winter, even though no detectable changes in the organization of cell walls were apparent. These results in the examined softwood species indicate that freezing behavior of xylem ray parenchyma cells changes in parallel not only with clear differences in the organization of cell walls but also with subtle sub-electron-microscopic differences, probably, in the structure of the cell wall.     

A New Form of Structural Peptidoglycan in Selenomonas ruminantium: Existence of Polyamine in Peptidoglycan

The chemical constituents of calluses of Thujopsis dolabrata (Hiba), Chamaecyparis obtusa (Hinoki), Chamaecyparis pisifera (Sawara), and Platycladus orientalis (Konotegashiwa), all of which belong to Cupressaceae, were examined by GC analysis. The main components of these calluses were diterpenoids of an abietane-type and sitosterol in common, while the chemical constituents of these parent plants were different from each other.     

Efficacy ofCarpophilus aggregation pheromones on nine species in northeastern Ohio, and identification of the pheromone ofC. brachypterus

Aggregation pheromones for sevenCarpophilus (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) species were field tested at a site with a rich nitidulid fauna in Ohio, USA, during the summers of 1992 and 1993. The pheromones used were blends identified for:Carpophilus antiquus (Melsheimer),C. brachypterus (Say),C. freemani Dobson, C. hemipterus (L.),C. lugubris Murray,C. mutilatus Erichson, andC. obsoletus Erichson. Each pheromone was used in conjunction with whole wheat bread dough, an effective co-attractant. The pheromone ofC. brachypterus Say was identified during the course of this study and was also tested; males emitted a 100:6:11:4:3 blend of (2E, 4E, 6E, 8E)-3, 5, 7-trimethyl-2, 4, 6, 8-decatetraene, (2E, 4E, 6E, 8E)-3, 5, 7-trimethyl-2, 4, 6, 8-undecatetraene, (2E, 4E, 6E, 8E)-7-ethyl-3, 5-dimethyl-2, 4, 6, 8-decatetraene, (3E, 5E, 7E, 9E)-4, 6, 8-trimethyl-3, 5, 7, 9-undecatetraene and (2E, 4E, 6E, 8E)-7-ethyl-3, 5-dimethyl-2, 4, 6, 8-undecatetraene, respectively. All species responded favorably to their own pheromones with the exception ofC. obsoletus, which was not present in this area. Strong mutual cross attraction was observed betweenC. brachypterus andC. hemipterus. In addition,C. lugubris responded to the pheromones ofC. obsoletus andC. hemipterus and, more weakly, to those ofC. freemani andC. brachypterus; C. freemani responded slightly to the pheromone ofC. multilatus; andC. antiquus responded to the pheromone ofC. lugubris. In most cases, cross attraction was related to the species involved sharing pheromone components. ForC. antiquus, however, the response to theC. lugubris pheromone was apparently kairomonalC. corticinus, C. marginatus, C. marginellus, andC. sayi, for which pheromones are not known, were attracted to the pheromone ofC. lugubris and in some cases to other pheromones. Significant numbers ofColopterus spp. responded to the blends forC. lugubris, C. hemipterus, C. brachypterus, and probably,C. obsoletus.     

Purification and properties of extracellularβ-fructofuranosidases fromAureobasidium sp. ATCC 20524

Summary Two extracellular -fructofuranosidases (E-1 andE-2) fromAureobasidium sp. ATCC 20524, producing 1-kestose (1^F--fructofuranosyl-sucrose) from sucrose, were purified to homogeneity. Molecular weights of the enzymes were estimated to be about 304000 (E-1) and 315000 (E-2) Da by gel filtration. The enzymes contained 33% (w/w) (E-1) and 27% (w/w) (E-2) carbohydrate. TheK _m values for sucrose ofE-1 andE-2 andE-2 were 0.34 and 0.28 M, respectively. were 0.34 and 0.28 M, respectively. The enzymatic profiles of these enzymes were almost identical to intracellular enzymesP-1 andP-2 except for the differences in carbohydrate content andK _m values ofE-2 andP-2.     

Development of male gametophyte of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Larix</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">leptolepis</Emphasis> Gord. with emphasis on diffuse stage of meiosis

A basic developmental framework of the Larix leptolepis Gord male gametophyte is presented in detail by squashing technique. The duration of the meiosis stage was more than 6 months, and included a long diffuse stage during winter. This long duration of the diffuse appearance of the diplotene stage makes L. leptolepis a unique suitable experimental material for studying the structure and function of the diffuse stage of meiosis. In particular, the processes of desynapsing and unpairing, which so far have received little attention, can be examined in detail. In L. leptolepis, the chromosomes undergo a dramatic structural reorganization during the diffuse diplotene stage. Based on the clearly visible differences in chromosome morphology, the diffuse diplotene stage was divided into four periods with suggested nomenclature as follows: schizonema, pre-diffuse diplotene, diffuse diplotene and post-diffuse diplotene. Both simultaneous and successive microsporogenesis were observed within L. leptolepis, and there was no strict relationship between the microsporogenesis types and the tetrad configurations, which are strongly influenced by spindle orientation, especially during meiosis II. The mature pollen grain at pollination consists of five cells aligned in an axial row. The prothallial cells cannot be regarded as senescent cells because they remain capable of division. S.-G. Zhang and W.-H. Yang have contributed equally to this work.