Possible Levels of Animal Consciousness with Reference to Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus)

Researchers often study nonhuman abilities by assuming theirsubjects form representations about perceived stimuli and thenprocess such information; why then would consciousness be required,and, if required, at what level? Arguments about nonhuman consciousnessrange from claims of levels comparable to humans to refutationof any need to study such phenomena. We suggest that (a) speciesexhibit different levels attuned to their ecological niches,and (b) animals, within their maximum possible level, exhibitdifferent extents of awareness appropriate to particular situations,much like humans (presumably conscious) who often act withoutconscious awareness of factors controlling their behavior. Wepropose that, to engage in complex information processing, animalslikely exhibit perceptual consciousness sensu Natsoulas (1978),i.e., are aware of what is being processed. We discuss theseissues and provide examples suggesting perceptual consciousness.     

Animal Consciousness: Some Philosophical, Methodological, and Evolutionary Problems

No consensus exists concerning the mechanisms, distribution,or adaptive significance of consciousness. Agreement on anyone of these issues would aid in resolving others. Given a reliablebehavioral or neuroanatomical test for consciousness, we couldmap its distribution and describe its evolution. Conversely,if we knew its distribution, we could assess its adaptive valueand look for similarly distributed neuroanatomies to help usget at its mechanisms. Morgan's Canon—the rule that we should avoid attributinghumanlike mental states to other animals whenever possible—impedesthe use of the comparative method in unraveling this knot. Ifinterpreted in this context as a parsimony criterion, Morgan'sCanon is logically equivalent to epiphenomenalism. It is parsimoniousif and only if conscious mental events play no causal role inhuman behavior and human consciousness has no adaptive significance.Rejecting this conclusion entails rejecting the parsimony interpretationof Morgan's Canon.     

Systems Approaches to Animal Disease Surveillance and Resource Allocation: Methodological Frameworks for Behavioral Analysis

While demands for animal disease surveillance systems are growing, there has been little applied research that has examined the interactions between resource allocation, cost-effectiveness, and behavioral considerations of actors throughout the livestock supply chain in a surveillance system context. These interactions are important as feedbacks between surveillance decisions and disease evolution may be modulated by their contextual drivers, influencing the cost-effectiveness of a given surveillance system. This paper identifies a number of key behavioral aspects involved in animal health surveillance systems and reviews some novel methodologies for their analysis. A generic framework for analysis is discussed, with exemplar results provided to demonstrate the utility of such an approach in guiding better disease control and surveillance decisions.     

Animal Adoption as Negotiated Order: A Comparison of Open Versus Traditional Shelter Approaches

ABSTRACT

Recently, the sheltering community has begun to reevaluate its adoption policies and the attitudes that shelter workers have towards adopters. Some shelters are now implementing what have been termed “open” adoptions as a way of increasing the number of animals adopted into good homes, moving away from more “traditional,” protective approaches. Based on in-depth interviews with, and observation of, the staff at two such shelters, this study examines how the adoption process is a negotiated order; namely, that workers in concert with each other and potential adopters figure out on a case-by-case basis how to interpret and implement formal adoption policies. Workers at both shelters similarly sorted potential adopters into various categories but relied on different strategies for influencing the outcome of the adoption process.     

Morphological Approaches to Phylogeny

SYNOPSIS. Traditional views on the interrelationships of themajor animal groups are based on morphological characters, butmolecular data of various types have in the last decade givenindications of new and sometimes quite puzzling phylogenies.This should be an incentive not only to reevaluation of theavailable morphological characters but also to new studies tofill the voids in our knowledge. Modern morphology is not concernedonly with traditional studies of structure and ontogeny of organsystems, but also with newer methods, such as SEM, TEM, immunocytochemistry,and cell marking. This has given morphology new dimensions,but it also has shown that vast areas of the animal kingdomremain very poorly known even through traditional studies. Phylogenetictrees built on morphology (and molecular trees with morphologicalcharacters added) demonstrate morphological characters thatare in conflict with the phylogeny, and therefore should bereinvestigated; they also indicate areas where new researchcan contribute significantly to our understanding of the pathwaysof the evolution. Morphological phylogeny has the distinct advantagethat characters of ancestors can be inferred and the evolutionarychanges checked in terms of functional continuity and hypothesesof adaptation.     

Approaches to library screening

Fuelled by the drive to complete the Human Genome Project, many laboratories have developed new methods of screening clone libraries. From PCR-based strategies to pooling schemes and increased automation, the tedious task of library screening has become less labour-intensive and more cost-efficient. Currently, two main screening methods dominate: hybridization and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In the following article, we present a brief overview of hybridization and PCR-based screening of yeast and bacterial libraries. Multi-faceted approaches combining different techniques, as well as less frequently employed methods such as fingerprinting are also described.     

Approaches to antiviral drug development

At present, only a few drugs have been approved by the FDA for therapy of viral infections in humans. There is a great need for antiviral drugs with increased potency and decreased toxicity, as well as drugs to treat viral diseases for which no drug or vaccine is currently available. Two approaches for development of antiviral drugs are described--an empirical strategy and a rational strategy--with several examples of each. Although many compounds have potent antiviral activity in cell culture, only a small fraction of these will go on to become antiviral drugs for use in humans. At this time, only seven synthetic compounds and alpha interferon have been approved by the FDA for therapy of viral infections in humans. None of these approved drugs are without toxicities, however, and hence there is a great need for antiviral drugs with increased potency and decreased toxicity, as well as for drugs to treat viral diseases for which no drug or vaccine is currently available. Two approaches for the development of antiviral drugs--the empirical and the rational strategies--and their applications and future directions are discussed.     

Molecular Approaches to Taenia asiatica

Taenia solium, T. saginata, and T. asiatica are taeniid tapeworms that cause taeniasis in humans and cysticercosis in intermediate host animals. Taeniases remain an important public health concerns in the world. Molecular diagnostic methods using PCR assays have been developed for rapid and accurate detection of human infecting taeniid tapeworms, including the use of sequence-specific DNA probes, PCR-RFLP, and multiplex PCR. More recently, DNA diagnosis using PCR based on histopathological specimens such as 10% formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded and stained sections mounted on slides has been applied to cestode infections. The mitochondrial gene sequence is believed to be a very useful molecular marker for not only studying evolutionary relationships among distantly related taxa, but also for investigating the phylo-biogeography of closely related species. The complete sequence of the human Taenia tapeworms mitochondrial genomes were determined, and its organization and structure were compared to other human-tropic Taenia tapeworms for which complete mitochondrial sequence data were available. The multiplex PCR assay with the Ta4978F, Ts5058F, Tso7421F, and Rev7915 primers will be useful for differential diagnosis, molecular characterization, and epidemiological surveys of human Taenia tapeworms.     

Audio-Visual Approaches to Science Teaching

From Instinct to Intelligence/How Animals Learn by Gloria Kirshner. Grosset &; Dunlap Publishers, 51 Madison Ave., New York, N.Y. 10010. 1970. 127 pp., $3.95. Reviewed by Robert C. Hayden.

A Pictorial History of Oceanographic Submersibles by James B. Sweeney, Crown Publishers, Inc., 419 Park Ave. South, New York, N.Y. 10016. 1970. 314 pp., Indexed, Bibliography. $9.95. Reviewed by Robert C. Hayden.

Where the Winds Sleep: Man's Future on the Moon—A Projected History by Neil P. Ruzic. Doubleday &; Co., Inc., Garden City, New York, 1970. 236 pp., Indexed. $5.95. Reviewed by Robert C. Hayden.

Hunters and Collectors by George H. T. Kimble. McGraw-Hill Book Co., 330 West 42nd St., New York, N.Y. 10036. 1970. 48 pp., Indexed. $4.95 trade edn., $4.72 lib. edn. Reviewed by Robert C. Hayden.

Life in Ponds by Jean Gorvett. American Heritage Press, New York. 1920. 31 pp. Reviewed by Robert C. Hayden.

Discovering What Goldfish Do by Seymour Simon. McGraw-Hill Book Co., 330 West 42nd St., New York, N.Y. 1970. 47 pp. $3.95 trade edn. $3.83 lib. edn. Reviewed by Robert C. Hayden.

Building and Flying Scale Model Aircraft 3rd Edition by Walter A. Musciano. Herman Publishing Service, Division of Cahners Pub. Co., Inc., 221 Columbus Ave., Boston, Mass. 02116. 1970. 245 pp. Glossary, $7.95. Reviewed by Robert C. Hayden.