Some neuroanatomical aspects of primate locomotor evolution

Primate locomotor patterns are the result of osteological and myological interactions, the effectiveness of which is governed by various afferent, internuncial and efferent central nervous system pathways. The distribution of primary afferents following lumbosacral ganglionectomies and the distribution of corticospinal fibers following lesion of contralateral motor cortex to medial and lateral ventral horn motor nuclei have been discussed for the tree shrew and bushbaby. Based on limited data it has been suggested that the tree shrew is the best living example of the quadrupedal Paleocene forms from which primates presumably evolved, and the bushbaby is one of the best examples of the vertical clingers and leapers which appeared in the Eocene. Both forms have dense primary afferent distribution to cells of the lateral portion of the ventral horn, which are related to appendicular musculature, and sparse projection to the medial part of the ventral horn which innervates axial musculature. Corticospinal fibers in the tree shrew do not synapse in any portion of the ventral horn at any spinal cord level. The bushbaby has direct cortical motor control over cells located in the medial portion of the ventral horn and, consequently, over axial musculature. Extrapolations from studies on the tree shrew and other generalized forms suggested that Paleocene quadrupeds lacked cortical control over axial and appendicular musculature and depended primarily on subcorticospinal pathways and spinal reflexes for the execution of their locomotor pattern. Eocene vertical clingers and leapers retained the reflex pathways of their Paleocene ancestors but acquired direct cortical motor control over axial musculature, thus indicating a first level of neuroanatomical adaptation related to evolving locomotor styles. It was suggested that there are correlations between locomotor style and neuromorphological specializations, and that comparative observations on key extant phylogenetic forms may provide a clearer and more complete picture of initial locomotor adaptations in the primate series.     

Government regulation of nonhuman primate facilities

Myriad international, federal, and state laws, regulations, rules, guidelines, and standards directly affect the activities of all nonhuman primate research facilities. Federal regulations alone encompass every aspect of facility operations. They govern the procurement, possession, handling, care, and utilization of nonhuman primates, the design, construction, maintenance, and operation of the facility, and the occupational and environmental protection afforded not only facility personnel, but also the general public. Proper management of a nonhuman primate facility depends on continual monitoring of constantly changing laws and regulations applicable to the type of facility operated and research conducted. An in-house compliance assurance program is necessary to assure conformance with pertinent regulations.     

Sex differences in nonhuman primate grooming

In this article, sex differences in nonhuman primate social grooming are reviewed. In general, female nonhuman primates groom more than do males. This conclusion is tempered somewhat by acknowledgements of exceptions and qualifications, and by evidence for experiential control of grooming.     

Polymorphism of glycophorins in nonhuman primate erythrocytes

Using immunoblotting techniques and polyclonal antisera to human erythrocyte glycophorin, we show that erythrocytes of several species of nonhuman primates, including representatives of anthropoid apes (19 chimpanzees, 3 gorillas, 6 orangutans, and 3 gibbons) and Old World monkeys (3 baboons, 5 rhesus monkeys, and 6 cynomologus macaques), contain human glycophorin-like molecules. Each species displays a unique glycophorin profile; in anthropoid apes the profile is more complex than in Old World monkeys and more similar to that seen in humans. The chimpanzee was the only species in which human -like glycophorin was detected but it differed from its human counterpart in electrophoretic mobility and reaction with M-specific monoclonal antibody. In contrast to humans, highly polymorphic glycophorin profiles were observed in each species of anthropoid apes and three distinct patterns were defined in each. No such polymorphism has been found so far among the Old World monkeys in the limited number of animals studied. The major glycophorins in all species but the chimpanzees failed to react with M- or N-specific monoclonal antibodies, suggesting structural differences from the human within the amino terminal regions. The reaction with the minor glycophorins showed inter- and intraspecies variability. All glycophorins, except -like glycophorin in the chimpanzee, reacted with the antiserum to the carboxyl terminal fragment of human glycophorin, indicating a structural relation to the human in this region. An unexpected correlation was observed, in the chimpanzee, between the patterns of electrophoretically resolved glycophorins and the V-A-B-D blood-group phenotypes, allowing the assignment of each determinant to specific glycophorin bands. The basis for the differences observed between human and nonhuman primate glycophorins is not clear but the possibilities include a common nonpolymorphic ancestor and differences in selective pressures.This research was supported by National Institutes of Health Grant 5 RO1 GM16389.     

The evolution of nonhuman primate social behavior

A review of the recent literature concerning evolutionary mechanisms and possible genetic contributions to social behavior reveals a concentration on function rather than mechanism. Although functional consequences may influence future genetic changes in a population, they do not necessarily reflect evolutionary history. More important, genes cannot code for functions. Only when the anatomical structures and behavioral patterns of individuals are described can we study genetic contributions to social organization. Discussions of function in the abstract, without specification of mechanism, do not fall within the realm of scientific testing.     

Models of focal cerebral ischemia in the nonhuman primate

Ischemic stroke is a uniquely human disease syndrome. Models of focal cerebral ischemia developed in nonhuman primates provide clinically relevant platforms for investigating pathophysiological alterations associated with ischemic brain injury, microvascular responses, treatment responses, and clinically relevant outcomes that may be appropriate for ischemic stroke patients. A considerable number of advantages attend the use of nonhuman primate models in cerebral vascular research. Appropriate development of such models requires neurosurgical expertise to produce single or multiple vascular occlusions. A number of experimentally and clinically accessible outcomes can be measured, including neurological deficits, neuron injury, evidence of non-neuronal cell injury, infarction volume, real-time imaging of injury development, vascular responses, regional cerebral blood flow, microvascular events, the relation between neuron and vascular events, and behavioral outcomes. Nonhuman primate models of focal cerebral ischemia provide excellent opportunities for understanding the vascular and cellular pathophysiology of cerebral ischemic injury, which resembles human ischemic stroke, and the appropriate study of pharmacological interventions in a human relevant setting.     

Conditioned sexual arousal in a nonhuman primate

Conditioning of sexual arousal has been demonstrated in several species from fish to humans but has not been demonstrated in nonhuman primates. Controversy exists over whether nonhuman primates produce pheromones that arouse sexual behavior. Although common marmosets copulate throughout the ovarian cycle and during pregnancy, males exhibit behavioral signs of arousal, demonstrate increased neural activation of anterior hypothalamus and medial preoptic area, and have an increase in serum testosterone after exposure to odors of novel ovulating females suggestive of a sexually arousing pheromone. Males also have increased androgens prior to their mate's ovulation. However, males presented with odors of ovulating females demonstrate activation of many other brain areas associated with motivation, memory, and decision making. In this study, we demonstrate that male marmosets can be conditioned to a novel, arbitrary odor (lemon) with observation of erections, and increased exploration of the location where they previously experienced a receptive female, and increased scratching in post-conditioning test without a female present. This conditioned response was demonstrated up to a week after the end of conditioning trials, a much longer lasting effect of conditioning than reported in studies of other species. These results further suggest that odors of ovulating females are not pheromones, strictly speaking and that marmoset males may learn specific characteristics of odors of females providing a possible basis for mate identification.     

HIV vaccine development in the nonhuman primate model of AIDS

Development of a prophylactic human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) vaccine is a leading priority in biomedical research. Much of this work has been done with the nonhuman primate model of AIDS. In a historical context, vaccine studies, which use this model, are summarized and discussed.     

非人灵长类糖尿病动物模型研究进展

糖尿病是继心血管疾病和肿瘤之后的另一种严重危害人类健康的重要慢性疾病,据世界卫生组织(WHO)报道,2009年全世界约有2.2亿糖尿病患者。对糖尿病发病机理的研究、预防和诊断、治疗药物的筛选和评价都需要合适的动物模型。在已报道的糖尿病动物模型中,非人灵长类动物糖尿病病程、病症与人类的糖尿病最为相似。该文从糖尿病动物模型的来源归纳了目前报道的主要的非人灵长类糖尿病模型,重点介绍了猕猴、食蟹猴和树鼩糖尿病模型及其特征,并对该领域的发展提出了一些思考。     

Viral battery testing in nonhuman primate colony management

Good colony management is associated with monitoring of animals for infectious agents. Of major current concern are B virus and simian AIDS (SAIDS) viruses. However, other viral agents frequently cause serious disease outbreaks which can be avoided if their presence is detected sufficiently early. The recent development of a rapid, sensitive and specific diagnostic test system, i.e., the dot immunobinding assay (DIA) permits the monitoring of a colony for many of the viruses that pose problems. By employing battery type testing using a panel of appropriate viral antigens, investigators are able to detect the increased presence of viral agents of concern and take necessary measures to prevent extension of the problem.     

Host defense deficiency in newborn nonhuman primate lungs

We have investigated two major aspects of the pulmonary host defense mechanism--alveolar macrophage function as a "first line of bacterial defense" and induced neutrophil migration into the lung as a "back-up defense." Chemotactic and phagocytic/killing assays revealed a functional deficiency in the alveolar macrophages of newborn primates. Serial bronchoalveolar lavage investigations revealed diminished neutrophil migration into the newborn primate lung. The overall pulmonary host defense capability in newborn primates was deficient. The results of this investigation may have direct clinical relevance to the susceptibility of newborns to infections and pneumonia.