Low-Intensity Agricultural Landscapes in Transylvania Support High Butterfly Diversity: Implications for Conservation

European farmland biodiversity is declining due to land use changes towards agricultural intensification or abandonment. Some Eastern European farming systems have sustained traditional forms of use, resulting in high levels of biodiversity. However, global markets and international policies now imply rapid and major changes to these systems. To effectively protect farmland biodiversity, understanding landscape features which underpin species diversity is crucial. Focusing on butterflies, we addressed this question for a cultural-historic landscape in Southern Transylvania, Romania. Following a natural experiment, we randomly selected 120 survey sites in farmland, 60 each in grassland and arable land. We surveyed butterfly species richness and abundance by walking transects with four repeats in summer 2012. We analysed species composition using Detrended Correspondence Analysis. We modelled species richness, richness of functional groups, and abundance of selected species in response to topography, woody vegetation cover and heterogeneity at three spatial scales, using generalised linear mixed effects models. Species composition widely overlapped in grassland and arable land. Composition changed along gradients of heterogeneity at local and context scales, and of woody vegetation cover at context and landscape scales. The effect of local heterogeneity on species richness was positive in arable land, but negative in grassland. Plant species richness, and structural and topographic conditions at multiple scales explained species richness, richness of functional groups and species abundances. Our study revealed high conservation value of both grassland and arable land in low-intensity Eastern European farmland. Besides grassland, also heterogeneous arable land provides important habitat for butterflies. While butterfly diversity in arable land benefits from heterogeneity by small-scale structures, grasslands should be protected from fragmentation to provide sufficiently large areas for butterflies. These findings have important implications for EU agricultural and conservation policy. Most importantly, conservation management needs to consider entire landscapes, and implement appropriate measures at multiple spatial scales.     

Bird assemblages in fragmented agricultural landscapes: the role of small brigalow remnants and adjoining land uses

Agricultural intensification typically leads to changes in bird diversity and community composition, with fewer species and foraging guilds present in more intensively managed parts of the landscape. In this study, we compare bird communities in small (2–32 ha) brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) remnants with those in adjacent uncultivated grassland, previously cultivated grassland and current cropland, to determine the contribution of different land uses to bird diversity in the agricultural landscape. Twenty remnant brigalow patches and adjacent agricultural (‘matrix’) areas in southern inland Queensland, Australia were sampled for bird composition and habitat characteristics. The richness, abundance and diversity of birds were all significantly higher in brigalow remnants than in the adjacent matrix of cropping and grassland. Within the matrix, species richness and diversity were higher in uncultivated grasslands than in current cultivation or previously cultivated grasslands. Forty-four percent of bird species were recorded only in brigalow remnants and 78% of species were recorded in brigalow and at least one other land management category. Despite high levels of landscape fragmentation and modification, small patches of remnant brigalow vegetation provide important habitat for a unique and diverse assemblage of native birds. The less intensively managed components of the agricultural matrix also support diverse bird assemblages and thus, may be important for local and regional biodiversity conservation.     

The conservation value of cacao agroforestry for bird functional diversity in tropical agricultural landscapes

Cacao agroforestry have been considered as biodiversity‐friendly farming practices by maintaining habitats for a high diversity of species in tropical landscapes. However, little information is available to evaluate whether this agrosystem can maintain functional diversity, given that agricultural changes can affect the functional components, but not the taxonomic one (e.g., species richness). Thus, considering functional traits improve the understanding of the agricultural impacts on biodiversity. Here, we measured functional diversity (functional richness‐FD, functional evenness‐FEve, and functional divergence‐Rao) and taxonomic diversity (species richness and Simpson index) to evaluate changes of bird diversity in cacao agroforestry in comparison with nearby mature forests (old‐growth forests) in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. We used data from two landscapes with constraining areas of mature forest (49% Una and 4.8% Ilhéus) and cacao agroforestry cover (6% and 82%, respectively). To remove any bias of species richness and to evaluate assembly processes (functional overdispersion or clustering), all functional indices were adjusted using null models. Our analyses considered the entire community, as well as separately for forest specialists, habitat generalists, and birds that contribute to seed dispersal (frugivores/granivores) or invertebrate removal (insectivores). Our findings showed that small cacao agroforestry in the forested landscape sustains functional diversity (FD and FEve) as diverse as nearby forests when considering the entire community, forest specialist, and habitat generalists. However, we observed declines for frugivores/granivores and insectivores (FD and Rao). These responses of bird communities differed from those observed by taxonomic diversity, suggesting that even species‐rich communities in agroforestry may capture lower functional diversity. Furthermore, communities in both landscapes showed either functional clustering or neutral processes as the main driver of functional assembly. Functional clustering may indicate that local conditions and resources were changed or lost, while neutral assemblies may reveal high functional redundancy at the landscape scale. In Ilhéus, the neutral assembly predominance suggests an effect of functional homogenization between habitats. Thus, the conservation value of cacao agroforestry to harbor species‐rich communities and ecosystem functions relies on smallholder production with reduced farm management in a forested landscape. Finally, we emphasize that seed dispersers and insectivores should be the priority conservation targets in cacao systems.     

Woody elements benefit bird diversity to a larger extent than semi-natural grasslands in cereal-dominated landscapes

Increasing landscape complexity can mitigate negative effects of agricultural intensification on biodiversity by offering resources complementary to those provided in arable fields. In particular, grazed semi-natural grasslands and woody elements support farmland birds, but little is known about their relative effects on bird diversity and community composition. In addition, the relative importance of local habitat versus landscape composition remains unclear. We investigated how the presence of semi-natural grasslands, the number of woody elements and the composition of the wider agricultural landscape affect bird species richness, true diversity (exponential Shannon diversity) and species composition. Bird communities were surveyed four times on 16 paired transects of 250 m each with 8 transects placed between a crop field and a semi-natural grassland and 8 transects between two crop fields with no semi-natural grasslands in the vicinity. The number of woody elements around transects was selected as an important predictor in all models, having a positive effect on species richness and true diversity, while the local presence of semi-natural grasslands was not selected in the best models. However, species richness and true diversity increased with increasing cover of ley and semi-natural grasslands, whereas species composition was modified by the coverage of winter wheat at the landscape scale. Furthermore, bird species richness, true diversity and species composition differed between sampling dates. As bird diversity benefited from woody elements, rather than from the local presence of semi-natural grasslands as such, it is important to maintain woody structures in farmland. However, the positive effect of grassland at the landscape scale highlights the importance of habitat variability at multiple scales. Because species richness and true diversity were affected by different landscape components compared to species composition, a mosaic of land-use types is needed to achieve multiple conservation goals across agricultural landscapes.     

Assessing avian diversity and community composition along a successional gradient in traditional Lacandon Maya agroforests

Evidence regarding the ability of agroforests to conserve biological diversity has been mixed; they tend to maintain avian communities with species richness similar to that of undisturbed forest ecosystems but generally do not completely preserve community composition. Using a combination of occupancy modeling and non-metric multidimensional scaling on point-count data, we assessed changes in avian community diversity and composition along a successional gradient in traditional Lacandon Maya agroforests and compared them to protected areas in the region. Bird species richness and diversity in Lacandon agroforests peaked in early secondary forest stages. These agroforests' mean Shannon–Weiner diversity was 5% higher than that of nearby protected areas, but their species richness was similar. Community composition in Lacandon agroforests changed throughout succession, with earlier stages supporting communities distinctly characterized by generalist species, while subsequent, less-intensively managed stages tended to support more forest-dwellers. The bird community observed in even the most mature secondary forest stages in Lacandon agroforests differed from that of undisturbed rain forest ecosystems. These results demonstrate the potential of traditional Lacandon agroforestry management to conserve avian biodiversity while ensuring food sovereignty for farmers. However, because the community composition of early-successional stages was different than later stages, shortening fallow cycles and reducing forest cover to increase agricultural production will limit the species this system can support. This study illustrates the value of incorporating traditional agroecosystems into conservation planning as well as maintaining protected areas, because the latter serve as refugia for species that require undisturbed forest habitat in an agroecological matrix.     

Conservation of tropical forest birds in countryside habitats

The pressing need to increase agricultural production often seems at odds with conserving biodiversity. We find that if managed properly, the tropical countryside may provide a substantial opportunity for tropical bird conservation. We detected 144 bird species from 29 families in agricultural areas outside of extensive native forest in southern Costa Rica. The majority of the species detected were observed foraging, often kilometres from extensive native forest. We estimate that 46% of those native to this region (excluding nocturnal species and waterfowl) are utilizing the countryside in some manner. Forecasts of biodiversity change under various land-use scenarios indicate that policies that affect habitat composition could greatly impact the persistence of these species in the countryside. In particular, if tall trees and edge habitats were removed from this landscape, we predict that bird richness in the countryside would decline by approximately 40%.     

三江平原湿地鸟类丰富度的空间格局及热点地区保护

全球气候变化和人类的开垦开发活动使湿地生物多样性遭到严重的干扰和破坏,导致生物多样性空间分布格局及热点地区的保护成为研究的热点。在对三江平原湿地鸟类预测的基础上,利用空间自相关方法分析三江平原湿地鸟类丰富度的空间分布格局,并找出湿地鸟类多样性的热点地区及优先保护顺序。研究结果表明,三江平原湿地鸟类丰富度高高集聚区主要分布在保护区及周边地区、河流和湖泊沿岸,是新建和扩建自然保护区的最佳区域。湿地鸟类丰富度高低集聚区主要分布在农田景观中,将它们设立成微型保护地块对于区域景观生态安全具有重要意义;利用湿地鸟类物种丰富度、国家级保护湿地鸟类、生境类型和结构、距最近保护区距离、破碎度、干扰度等指标,在研究区内共找到13个热点地区,总面积为1018.7km²,占研究区总面积的8%;利用系统聚类分析,将13个热点地区划分成3种优先保护顺序。构建的小区域范围内寻找生物多样性热点地区的方法,为相关政府部门更有效地进行湿地生物多样性的保护和管理提供科学依据。     

Land use types influenced avian assemblage structure in a forest–agriculture landscape in Ghana

The conservation of biodiversity within tropical forest regions does not lie only in the maintenance of natural forest areas, but on conservation strategies directed toward agricultural land types within which they are embedded. This study investigated variations in bird assemblages of different functional groups of forest‐dependent birds in three agricultural land types, relative to distance from the interior of 34 tropical forest patches of varying sizes. Point counts were used to sample birds at each study site visited. Data from counts were used to estimate species richness, species evenness, and Simpson's diversity of birds. Mean species richness, evenness, and diversity were modeled as responses and as a function of agricultural land type, distance from the forest interior and three site‐scale vegetation covariates (density of large trees, fruiting trees, and patch size) using generalized linear mixed‐effect models. Mean observed species richness of birds varied significantly within habitat types. Mean observed species richness was highest in forest interior sites while sites located in farm centers recorded the lowest mean species richness. Species richness of forest specialists was strongly influenced by the type of agricultural land use. Fallow lands, density of large trees, and patch size strongly positively influenced forest specialists. Insectivorous and frugivorous birds were more species‐rich in fallow lands while monoculture plantations favored nectarivorous birds. Our results suggest that poor agricultural practices can lead to population declines of forest‐dependent birds particularly specialist species. Conservation actions should include proper land use management that ensures heterogeneity through retention of native tree species on farms in tropical forest‐agriculture landscapes.     

Combined effects of landscape composition and heterogeneity on farmland avian diversity

Conserving biodiversity on farmland is an essential element of worldwide efforts for reversing the global biodiversity decline. Common approaches involve improving the natural component of the landscape by increasing the amount of natural and seminatural habitats (e.g., hedgerows, woodlots, and ponds) or improving the production component of the landscape by increasing the amount of biodiversity‐friendly crops. Because these approaches may negatively impact on economic output, it was suggested that an alternative might be to enhance the diversity (compositional heterogeneity) or the spatial complexity (configurational heterogeneity) of land cover types, without necessarily changing composition. Here, we develop a case study to evaluate these ideas, examining whether managing landscape composition or heterogeneity, or both, would be required to achieve conservation benefits on avian diversity in open Mediterranean farmland. We surveyed birds in farmland landscapes of southern Portugal, before (1995–1997) and after (2010–2012) the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) reform of 2003, and related spatial and temporal variation in bird species richness to variables describing the composition, and the compositional and configurational heterogeneity, of the natural and production components of the landscape. We found that the composition of the production component had the strongest effects on avian diversity, with a particularly marked effect on the richness of farmland and steppe bird species. Composition of the natural component was also influential, mainly affecting the richness of woodland/shrubland species. Although there were some effects of compositional and configurational heterogeneity, these were much weaker and inconsistent than those of landscape composition. Overall, we suggest that conservation efforts in our area should focus primarily on the composition of the production component, by striving to maximize the prevalence of biodiversity‐friendly crops. This recommendation probably applies to other areas such as ours, where a range of species of conservation concern is strongly associated with crop habitats.     

Linking Land‐Use Scenarios,Remote Sensing and Monitoring to Project Impact of Management Decisions

Large‐scale modifications of natural ecosystems lead to mosaics of natural, semi‐natural and intensively used habitats. To improve communication in conservation planning, managers and other stakeholders need spatially explicit projections at the landscape scale of future biodiversity under different land‐use scenarios. For that purpose, we visualized the potential effect of five forest management scenarios on the avifauna of Kakamega Forest, western Kenya using different measures of bird diversity and GIS data. Future projections of bird diversity combined: (1) remotely sensed data on the spatial distribution of different forest management types; (2) field‐based data on the biodiversity of birds in the different management types; and (3) forest management scenarios that took into account possible views of various stakeholder groups. Management scenarios based on the species richness of forest specialists were very informative, because they reflected differences in the proportions of near‐natural forest types among the five scenarios. Projections based on community composition were even more meaningful, as they mirrored not only the proportions of near‐natural forest types, but also their perimeter to area ratios. This highlights that it is important to differentiate effects of the total area of available habitat and the degree of habitat fragmentation, both for species richness and community composition. Furthermore, our study shows that an approach that combines land‐use scenarios, remote sensing and field data on biodiversity can be used to visualize future biodiversity. As such, visualizations of alternative scenarios are valuable for successful communication about conservation planning considering different groups of stakeholders in species‐rich tropical forests.     

Use of Tropical Dry Forests and Agricultural Areas by Neotropical Bird Communities

Agricultural activities represent a global threat to biodiversity, yet little is known about the relative importance of different agricultural land uses in relation to their wildlife communities. We explored bird community structure, diversity, and composition in a landscape dominated by primary tropical dry forest, and in three agricultural systems (i.e., tree orchards, herbaceous cropfields, cattle pastures) to evaluate the way in which birds use different habitats within the landscape. Tropical dry forests had the highest species richness and community evenness, although the bird community in tree orchards was also relatively species rich and even. Cattle pastures had more bird species than cropfields but both habitats were comparatively species poor with low evenness. Our results are related to habitat structure and the spatial location of sites within the landscape matrix. Based on our observations, we recommend including native tree species within agricultural systems and surrounding areas to provide additional resources for birds. Finally, we suggest promoting natural recruitment of native trees and shrubs within cattle pastures to provide suitable habitat for species that use tropical dry forest plants. Abstract in Spanish is available at http://www.blackwell‐synergy.com/loi/btp .     

Are protected areas maintaining bird diversity?

Evaluating the effectiveness of protected areas for sustaining biodiversity is crucial to achieving conservation outcomes. While studies of effectiveness have improved our understanding of protected‐area design and management, few investigations (< 5%) have quantified the ecological performance of reserves for conserving species. Here, we present an empirical evaluation of protected‐area effectiveness using long‐term measures of a vulnerable assemblage of species. We compare forest and woodland bird diversity in the Australian Capital Territory over 11 yr on protected and unprotected areas located in temperate eucalypt woodland and matched by key habitat attributes. We examine separately the response of birds to protected areas established prior to 1995 and after 1995 when fundamental changes were made to regional conservation policy. Bird diversity was measured in richness, occurrence of vulnerable species, individual species trajectories and functional trait groups. We found that protected areas were effective in maintaining woody vegetation cover in the study region, but were less effective in the protection of the target bird species assemblage. Protected areas were less species rich than unprotected areas, with significant declines in richness across sites protected prior to 1995. Small, specialised and vulnerable species showed stronger associations with unprotected areas than protected areas. Our findings indicate that recently established reserves (post‐1995) are performing similarly to unprotected woodland areas in terms of maintaining woodland bird diversity, and that both of these areas are more effective in the conservation of woodland bird populations than reserves established prior to 1995. We demonstrate that the conservation value of protected areas is strongly influenced by the physical characteristics, as well as the landscape context, of a given reserve and can diminish with changes in surrounding land use over time. Both protected areas and off‐reserve conservation schemes have important roles to play in securing species populations.     

Effect of forest landscapes composition and configuration on bird community and its functional traits in a hotspot of biodiversity of Chile

Understanding the effect of landscape configuration on the bird species richness and their functional traits (dietary preferences) is important to link the conservation and restoration plans to the production of the crops. Our aims were: 1) to study the influence of forest types (native, mixed and plantations) on the bird species richness in two agroforestry landscapes (heterogeneous/homogeneous); 2) to assess the effect of size/density of forest patches in the birds’ functional traits; 3) to evaluate the effect of isolated trees on them, and 4) to discuss conservation and restoration measures for the birds’ functional traits in agroforestry landscapes. We used hierarchical occupancy models to evaluate the effect of different landscape metrics and detectability measures on bird communities. We recorded a total of 64 bird species. The estimated species richness was considerable higher in homogeneous landscape (31.7 ± 2.7) than heterogeneous (27.3 ± 2.5). Our results showed the bird assemblage had a positive trend with native forests, negative with mixed forests and neutral trend for plantations. The granivores and insectivore’s species showed significant preferences for homogeneous landscape, while omnivores had significant preferences for heterogeneous landscape. Carnivores/Piscivores and herbivores/frugivores species did not show preferences by any landscape type. The response of functional traits depended on different forests attributes. The isolated trees had a significant effect on the birds’ functional traits. In conclusion, it is necessary a deep knowledge about the relationship between the landscape configuration and the bird species richness/functional traits. These findings could help in the future with the conservation, restoration, and rewilding policies in this important hotspot of biodiversity, avoiding alterations in the ecosystem services.     

Local‐ and landscape‐level effects of land use change on bird diversity in Abiata‐Shalla Lakes National Park,Ethiopia

Understanding the effects of anthropogenic disturbances on biodiversity is important for conservation prioritization. This study examined the effects of vegetation degradation on bird diversity in Abiata‐Shalla Lakes National Park, Ethiopia. We surveyed birds and vegetation structure between January and March 2015 in disturbed (impacted by settlement and agriculture) and undisturbed (not impacted) transects of two vegetation types (savannah woodland and gallery forest). We compared between disturbed and undisturbed transects at local (within vegetation types) and landscape (across vegetation types) levels: (a) avian species richness of the entire assemblage and feeding guilds and (b) species assemblage composition. We found significantly greater mean and total bird species richness of the entire assemblage and insectivore and granivore feeding guilds in the undisturbed transects, while the nectarivore guild was totally absent in the disturbed transects. We also found significant differences in bird species assemblage composition between the disturbed and undisturbed transects both within and across the vegetation types, and bird species assemblage composition at the landscape level was positively correlated with tree abundance and understorey vegetation height. In conclusion, our results demonstrate and add to the increasing body of evidence concerning the adverse effects of human‐induced vegetation change on bird diversity.     

Birds in the matrix: the role of agriculture in avian conservation in the Taita Hills,Kenya

Agricultural conversion of tropical forests is a major driver of biodiversity loss. Slowing rates of deforestation is a conservation priority, but it is also useful to consider how species diversity is retained across the agricultural matrix. Here, we assess how bird diversity varies in relation to land use in the Taita Hills, Kenya. We used point counts to survey birds along a land‐use gradient that included primary forest, secondary vegetation, agroforest, timber plantation and cropland. We found that the agricultural matrix supports an abundant and diverse bird community with high levels of species turnover, but that forest specialists are confined predominantly to primary forest, with the matrix dominated by forest visitors. Ordination analyses showed that representation of forest specialists decreases with distance from primary forest. With the exception of forest generalists, bird abundance and diversity are lowest in timber plantations. Contrary to expectation, we found feeding guilds at similar abundances in all land‐use types. We conclude that whilst the agricultural matrix, and agroforest in particular, makes a strong contribution to observed bird diversity at the landscape scale, intact primary forest is essential for maintaining this diversity, especially amongst species of conservation concern.     

Do riparian forest strips in modified forest landscapes aid in conserving bat diversity?

Agricultural practices lead to losses of natural resources and biodiversity. Maintaining forests alongside streams (riparian forest strips) has been used as a mechanism to minimize the impact of clearing for agriculture on biodiversity. To test the contribution of riparian forest strips to conserve biodiversity in production landscapes, we selected bats as a biodiversity model system and examined two dimensions of diversity: taxonomic and functional. We compared bat diversity and composition in forest, with and without stream habitat, and in narrow forest riparian strips surrounded by areas cleared for agriculture. We tested the hypothesis that riparian forest strips provide potential conservation value by providing habitat and serving as movement corridors for forest bat species. Riparian forest strips maintained 75% of the bat species registered in forested habitats. We found assemblage in sites with riparian forest strips were dominated by a few species with high abundance and included several species with low abundance. Bat species assemblage was more similar between sites with streams than between those sites to forests without stream habitat. These results highlight the importance of stream habitat in predicting presence of bat species. We registered similar number of guilds between forest sites and riparian forest strips sites. Relative to matrix habitats, stream and edge habitats in riparian forest strips sites were functionally more diverse, supporting our hypothesis about the potential conservation value of riparian forest strips. Results from this study suggest that maintaining riparian forest strips within cleared areas for agricultural areas helps conserve the taxonomic and functional diversity of bats. Also, it provides basic data to evaluate the efficacy of maintaining these landscape features for mitigating impacts of agricultural development on biodiversity. However, we caution that riparian forest strips alone are not sufficient for biodiversity maintenance; their value depends on maintenance of larger forest areas in their vicinity.     

Landscape heterogeneity metrics as indicators of bird diversity: Determining the optimal spatial scales in different landscapes

Species distribution models are often used to study the biodiversity of ecosystems. The modelling process uses a number of parameters to predict others, such as the occurrence of determinate species, population size, habitat suitability or biodiversity. It is well known that the heterogeneity of landscapes can lead to changes in species’ abundance and biodiversity. However, landscape metrics depend on maps and spatial scales when it comes to undertaking a GIS analysis.We explored the goodness of fit of several models using the metrics of landscape heterogeneity and altitude as predictors of bird diversity in different landscapes and spatial scales. Two variables were used to describe biodiversity: bird richness and trophic level diversity, both of which were obtained from a breeding bird survey by means of point counts. The relationships between biodiversity and landscape metrics were compared using multiple linear regressions. All of the analyses were repeated for 14 different spatial scales and for cultivated, forest and grassland environments to determine the optimal spatial scale for each landscape typology.Our results revealed that the relationships between species’ richness and landscape heterogeneity using 1:10,000 land cover maps were strongest when working on a spatial scale up to a radius of 125–250 m around the sampled point (circa 4.9–19.6 ha). Furthermore, the correlation between measures of landscape heterogeneity and bird diversity was greater in grasslands than in cultivated or forested areas. The multi-spatial scale approach is useful for (a) assessing the accuracy of surrogates of bird diversity in different landscapes and (b) optimizing spatial model procedures for biodiversity mapping, mainly over extensive areas.     

Matrix type and landscape attributes modulate avian taxonomic and functional spillover across habitat boundaries in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

Land use intensification drives biodiversity loss worldwide. In heterogeneous landscape mosaics, both overall forest area and anthropogenic matrix structure induce changes in biological communities in primary habitat remnants. However, community changes via cross‐habitat spillover processes along forest–matrix interfaces remain poorly understood. Moreover, information on how landscape attributes affect spillover processes across habitat boundaries are embryonic. Here, we quantify avian α‐ and β‐diversity (as proxies of spillover rates) across two dominant types of forest–matrix interfaces (forest–pasture and forest–eucalyptus plantation) within the Atlantic Forest biodiversity hotspot in southeast Brazil. We also assess the effects of anthropogenic matrix type and landscape attributes (forest cover, edge density and land‐use diversity) on bird taxonomic and functional β‐diversity across forest–matrix boundaries. Alpha taxonomic richness was higher in forest edges than within both matrix types, but between matrix types, it was higher in pastures than in eucalyptus plantations. Although significantly higher in forests edges than in the adjacent eucalyptus, bird functional richness did not differ between forest edges and adjacent pastures. Community changes (β‐diversity) related to species and functional replacements (turnover component) were higher across forest–pasture boundaries, whereas changes related to species and functional loss (nested component) were higher across forest–eucalyptus boundaries. Forest edges adjacent to eucalyptus had significant higher species and functional replacements than forest edges adjacent to pastures. Forest cover negatively influenced functional β‐diversity across both forest–pasture and forest–eucalyptus interfaces. We show the importance of matrix type and the structure of surrounding landscapes (mainly forest cover) on rates of bird assemblage spillover across forest‐matrix boundaries, which has profound implications to biological fluxes, ecosystem functioning and land‐use management in human‐modified landscapes.     

Bird diversity and endemism along a land‐use gradient in Madagascar: The conservation value of vanilla agroforests

Land‐use change is the most important driver of biodiversity loss worldwide and particularly so in the tropics, where natural habitats are transformed into large‐scale monocultures or heterogeneous landscape mosaics of largely unknown conservation value. Using birds as an indicator taxon, we evaluated the conservation value of a landscape mosaic in northeastern Madagascar, a biodiversity hotspot and the center of global vanilla production. We assessed bird species richness and composition by conducting point counts across seven prevalent land‐use types (forest‐ and fallow‐derived vanilla agroforests, woody and herbaceous fallow that are part of a shifting cultivation system, rice paddy, forest fragment and contiguous old‐growth forest). We find that old‐growth forest had the highest species richness, driven by a high share of endemics. Species richness and community composition in forest‐derived vanilla agroforest were similar to forest fragment, whereas fallow‐derived vanilla agroforest was most comparable to woody fallow. The open land‐use types herbaceous fallow and rice paddy had fewest species. Across forest fragments, vanilla agroforests, and woody fallows, endemic bird species richness was positively correlated to landscape‐scale forest cover. We conclude that both fallow‐ and forest‐derived vanilla agroforests play an important but contrasting role for bird conservation: Fallow‐derived agroforests are less valuable but take fallow land out of the shifting cultivation cycle, possibly preventing further degradation. Conversely, forest‐derived agroforests contribute to forest degradation but may avoid total loss of tree cover from forest fragments. Considering the land‐use history of agroforests may thus be a promising avenue for future research beyond the case of vanilla. Abstract in Malagasay is available with online material     

Agroforestry systems conserve species-rich but modified assemblages of tropical birds and bats

Although an increasing number of studies have shown that diverse, multi-strata agroforestry systems can contribute to the conservation of tropical biodiversity, there is still debate about how the biodiversity within agroforestry systems compares to that of intact forest and alternative land uses. In order to assess the relative importance of agroforestry systems for biodiversity conservation, we characterized bat and bird assemblages occurring in forests, two types of agroforestry systems (cacao and banana) and plantain monocultures in the indigenous reserves of Talamanca, Costa Rica. A total of 2,678 bats of 45 species were captured, and 3,056 birds of 224 species were observed. Agroforestry systems maintained bat assemblages that were as (or more) species-rich, abundant and diverse as forests, had the same basic suite of dominant species, but contained more nectarivorous bats than forests. Agroforestry systems also contained bird assemblages that were as abundant, species-rich and diverse as forests; however the species composition of these assemblages was highly modified, with fewer forest dependent species, more open area species and different dominant species. The plantain monocultures had highly modified and depauperate assemblages of both birds and bats. Across land uses, bird diversity and species richness were more closely correlated with the structural and floristic characteristics than were bats, suggesting potential taxon-specific responses to different land uses. Our results indicate that diverse cacao and banana agroforestry systems contribute to conservation efforts by serving as habitats to high numbers of bird and bat species, including some, but not all, forest-dependent species and species of known conservation concern. However, because the animal assemblages in agroforestry systems differ from those in forests, the maintenance of forests within the agricultural landscape is critical for conserving intact assemblages at the landscape level.