Mate choice when males are in patches: optimal strategies and good rules of thumb

In standard mate-choice models, females encounter males sequentially and decide whether to inspect the quality of another male or to accept a male already inspected. What changes when males are clumped in patches and there is a significant cost to travel between patches? We use stochastic dynamic programming to derive optimum strategies under various assumptions. With zero costs to returning to a male in the current patch, the optimal strategy accepts males above a quality threshold which is constant whenever one or more males in the patch remain uninspected; this threshold drops when inspecting the last male in the patch, so returns may occur only then and are never to a male in a previously inspected patch. With non-zero within-patch return costs, such a two-threshold rule still performs extremely well, but a more gradual decline in acceptance threshold is optimal. Inability to return at all need not decrease performance by much. The acceptance threshold should also decline if it gets harder to discover the last males in a patch. Optimal strategies become more complex when mean male quality varies systematically between patches or years, and females estimate this in a Bayesian manner through inspecting male qualities. It can then be optimal to switch patch before inspecting all males on a patch, or, exceptionally, to return to an earlier patch. We compare performance of various rules of thumb in these environments and in ones without a patch structure. A two-threshold rule performs excellently, as do various simplifications of it. The best-of-N rule outperforms threshold rules only in non-patchy environments with between-year quality variation. The cutoff rule performs poorly.     

What,where and when: deconstructing memory

The ability of animals to remember the what, where and when of a unique past event is used as an animal equivalent to human episodic memory. We currently view episodic memory as reconstructive, with an event being remembered in the context in which it took place. Importantly, this means that the components of a what, where, when memory task should be dissociable (e.g. what would be remembered to a different degree than when). We tested this hypothesis by training hummingbirds to a memory task, where the location of a reward was specified according to colour (what), location (where), and order and time of day (when). Although hummingbirds remembered these three pieces of information together more often than expected, there was a hierarchy as to how they were remembered. When seemed to be the hardest to remember, while errors relating to what were more easily corrected. Furthermore, when appears to have been encoded as a combination of time of day and sequence information. As hummingbirds solved this task using reconstruction of different memory components (what, where and when), we suggest that similar deconstructive approaches may offer a useful way to compare episodic and episodic-like memories.     

What,where and when: spatial foraging decisions in primates

When exploiting the environment, animals have to discriminate, track, and integrate salient spatial cues to navigate and identify goal sites. Actually, they have to know what can be found (e.g. what fruit), where (e.g. on which tree) and when (in what season or moment of the year). This is very relevant for primate species as they often live in seasonal and relatively unpredictable environments such as tropical forests. Here, we review and compare different approaches used to investigate primate spatial foraging strategies: from direct observations of wild primates to predictions from statistical simulations, including experimental approaches on both captive and wild primates, and experiments in captivity using virtual reality technology. Within this framework, most of these studies converge to show that many primate species can (i) remember the location of most of food resources well, and (ii) often seem to have a goal‐oriented path towards spatially permanent resources. Overall, primates likely use mental maps to plan different foraging strategies to enhance their fitness. The majority of studies suggest that they may organise spatial information on food resources into topological maps: they use landmarks to navigate and encode local spatial information with regard to direction and distance. Even though these studies were able to show that primates can remember food quality (what) and its location (where), still very little is known on how they incorporate the temporal knowledge of available food (when). Future studies should attempt to increase our understanding of the potential of primates to learn temporal patterns and how both socio‐ecological differences among species and their cognitive abilities influence such behavioural strategies.     

Bottlenose dolphins exchange signature whistles when meeting at sea

The bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus, is one of very few animals that, through vocal learning, can invent novel acoustic signals and copy whistles of conspecifics. Furthermore, receivers can extract identity information from the invented part of whistles. In captivity, dolphins use such signature whistles while separated from the rest of their group. However, little is known about how they use them at sea. If signature whistles are the main vehicle to transmit identity information, then dolphins should exchange these whistles in contexts where groups or individuals join. We used passive acoustic localization during focal boat follows to observe signature whistle use in the wild. We found that stereotypic whistle exchanges occurred primarily when groups of dolphins met and joined at sea. A sequence analysis verified that most of the whistles used during joins were signature whistles. Whistle matching or copying was not observed in any of the joins. The data show that signature whistle exchanges are a significant part of a greeting sequence that allows dolphins to identify conspecifics when encountering them in the wild.     

Is weight an important parameter when measuring copepod growth?

We studied in situ weight increment of Calanus helgolandicus developing under field conditions. Weight increment between successive stages was rather similar for early nauplii (NII-NV ∼2.00 μgC μgC⁻¹) and for early copepodites (NVI-CIII mean: ∼2.40 μgC μgC⁻¹) but lower for late copepodites (CIV ∼0.80 and CV ∼0.20 μgC μgC⁻¹). Weight increment of CIV and particularly CV was found to be closely linked to the method used to estimate the weight: either (i) directly measured weights, or (ii) weights estimated from a length-weight regression. The weight of CV, which has a relatively long stage duration, shows wide variations within the stage while length variations within stage are very low. For example, on the 17th of August, some CV had a carbon weight three times higher than other ones. The main cause of variation is the age of the individuals within the stage.We recommend direct weight measurement rather than the use of length-weight regression to estimate weight increment. However, and especially for stages with large variations in weight, whether the individuals are at the mid-point of their stage should be checked.     

Spatial scale,topography and thermoregulatory behaviour interact when modelling species’ thermal niches

The spatial scale at which climate and species’ occupancy data are gathered, and the resolution at which ecological models are run, can strongly influence predictions of species performance and distributions. Running model simulations at coarse rather than fine spatial resolutions, for example, can determine if a model accurately predicts the distribution of a species. The impacts of spatial scale on a model's accuracy are particularly pronounced across mountainous terrain. Understanding how these discrepancies arise requires a modelling approach in which the underlying processes that determine a species’ distribution are explicitly described. Here we use a process‐based model to explore how spatial resolution, topography and behaviour alter predictions of a species thermal niche, which in turn constrains its survival and geographic distribution. The model incorporates biophysical equations to predict the operative temperature (T_e), thermal‐dependent performance and survival of a typical insect, with a complex life‐cycle, in its microclimate. We run this model with geographic data from a mountainous terrain in South Africa using climate data at three spatial resolutions. We also explore how behavioural thermoregulation affects predictions of a species performance and survival by allowing the animal to select the optimum thermal location within each coarse‐grid cell. At the regional level, coarse‐resolution models predicted lower T_e at low elevations and higher T_e at high elevations than models run at fine‐resolutions. These differences were more prominent on steep, north‐facing slopes. The discrepancies in T_e in turn affected estimates of the species thermal niche. The modelling framework revealed how spatial resolution and topography influence predictions of species distribution models, including the potential impacts of climate change. These systematic biases must be accounted for when interpreting the outputs of future modelling studies, particularly when species distributions are predicted to shift from uniform to topographically heterogeneous landscapes.     

天山云杉天然林不同林层的空间格局和空间关联性

天山云杉(Picea Schrenkiana)林是天山林区的重要针叶林。研究调查了分别代表天山云杉增长型种群和成熟型种群的两块标准地,应用Ripley's K系数法研究了天山云杉更新层、低林层、中林层和高林层的空间格局和不同林层的空间关联性,并应用Moran's I系数法研究了不同林层的林木高度的空间自相关性。结果表明:所有林层的天山云杉活立木都是显著聚集的,只是发生聚集格局的强度和聚集尺度不同。更新层天山云杉具有最大的聚集强度,从更新层到低林层,聚集强度急速降低。两块标准地中天山桦(Betula tianschanica Rupr.)、天山柳(Salix tianschanica Rgl.)和天山云杉活立木的空间关联性的表现不同。研究结果表明:增长型种群中天山桦、天山柳在所有尺度上都抑制天山云杉的生长;而成熟型种群中天山桦、天山柳在1-10 m尺度内对天山云杉种群的生长没有影响,10-40 m表现出正相关,40 m以上没有表现出明显的关联性;同时天山桦、天山柳基本上在所有尺度都抑制天山云杉的更新。在更新层和低林层间表现出正相关;而更新层和枯死木之间的空间关联性为正相关。     

A tool for simulating and communicating uncertainty when modelling species distributions under future climates

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Ants show a leftward turning bias when exploring unknown nest sites

Behavioural lateralization in invertebrates is an important field of study because it may provide insights into the early origins of lateralization seen in a diversity of organisms. Here, we present evidence for a leftward turning bias in Temnothorax albipennis ants exploring nest cavities and in branching mazes, where the bias is initially obscured by thigmotaxis (wall-following) behaviour. Forward travel with a consistent turning bias in either direction is an effective nest exploration method, and a simple decision-making heuristic to employ when faced with multiple directional choices. Replication of the same bias at the colony level would also reduce individual predation risk through aggregation effects, and may lead to a faster attainment of a quorum threshold for nest migration. We suggest the turning bias may be the result of an evolutionary interplay between vision, exploration and migration factors, promoted by the ants'' eusociality.     

Cleaner wrasse mimics inflict higher costs on their models when they are more aggressive towards signal receivers

Aggressive mimics are predatory species that resemble a 'model' species to gain access to food, mating opportunities or transportation at the expense of a signal receiver. Costs to the model may be variable, depending on the strength of the interaction between mimics and signal receivers. In the Indopacific, the bluestriped fangblenny Plagiotremus rhinorhynchos mimics juvenile cleaner wrasse Labroides dimidiatus. Instead of removing ectoparasites from larger coral reef fish, fangblennies attack fish to feed on scales and body tissue. In this study, juvenile cleaner wrasse suffered significant costs when associated with P. rhinorhynchos mimics in terms of reduced cleaning activity. Furthermore, the costs incurred by the model increased with heightened aggression by mimics towards signal receivers. This was apparently because of behavioural changes in signal receivers, as cleaning stations with mimics that attacked frequently were visited less. Variation in the costs incurred by the model may influence mimicry accuracy and avoidance learning by the signal receiver and thus affect the overall success and maintenance of the mimicry system.     

Colour learning when foraging for nectar and pollen: bees learn two colours at once

Bees are model organisms for the study of learning and memory, yet nearly all such research to date has used a single reward, nectar. Many bees collect both nectar (carbohydrates) and pollen (protein) on a single foraging bout, sometimes from different plant species. We tested whether individual bumblebees could learn colour associations with nectar and pollen rewards simultaneously in a foraging scenario where one floral type offered only nectar and the other only pollen. We found that bees readily learned multiple reward–colour associations, and when presented with novel floral targets generalized to colours similar to those trained for each reward type. These results expand the ecological significance of work on bee learning and raise new questions regarding the cognitive ecology of pollination.     

基于ESDA的西北太平洋柔鱼资源空间热点区域及其变动研究

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When more is less: the fitness consequences of predators attacking more unpalatable prey when more are presented

In 1879, Fritz Müller hypothesized that mimetic resemblance in which defended prey display the same warning signal would share the costs of predator education. Although Müller argued that predators would need to ingest a fixed number of prey with a given visual signal when learning to avoid unpalatable prey, this assumption lacks empirical support. We report an experiment which shows that, as the number of unpalatable prey presented to them increased, avian predators attacked higher numbers of those prey. We calculated that, when predators increase attacks, the fitness costs incurred by unpalatable prey can be substantial. This suggests that the survival benefits of mimicry could be lower than Müller proposed. An important finding is, however, that these costs decline in importance as the total number of available prey increases.