长链非编码RNA TERRA的研究进展

端粒是染色体末端的特殊结构,对染色体具有保护作用,并且和衰老及很多疾病相关。长链非编码RNA是长度大于200bp且一般不具有编码功能的RNA。TERRA(telomeric repeat-containing RNA)是由端粒重复序列转录的一类长链非编码RNA,研究表明TERRA具有参与调控端粒长度,促进异染色体形成和保护染色体末端等功能,并且TERRA的表达与疾病和衰老相关。由于TERRA对于端粒具有重要作用,因此对于TERRA的研究已经成为端粒相关研究中的热点。目前对于TERRA的转录调控及生物学功能已有较为深入的了解。现对TERRA的生物学特性,功能和与疾病及衰老的关系进行综述,以期为TERRA后续的研究如作为疾病治疗靶点,延缓衰老等提供参考。     

哺乳动物细胞衰老调节的新机制——端粒的表观遗传修饰

端粒（telomere）是位于真核生物染色体末端的保护性结构,在调节细胞衰老及细胞寿命等 方面具有重要意义.人们已在端粒结构中鉴定出了一系列的蛋白因子,如TRF1、TRF2、Pot1 ,Rap1、Tin2等,这些因子在保护端粒以及维持端粒合适长度的过程中具有重要作用.最近 人们发现,在端粒结构以及亚端粒区域中存在丰富的表观遗传修饰,该类修饰包括组蛋白的 三甲基化、组蛋白的乙酰基化以及DNA的甲基化等.并且发现这些修饰在端粒长度调节过程以 及端粒相关疾病的发生发展过程中具有重要意义.人们推测,该机制可能对哺乳动物的衰老过 程以及衰老相关的疾病等方面具有重要的调节作用.本文将对这些方面的最新研究进展作一 介绍.     

端粒结合蛋白与端粒长度调节

端粒结合蛋白与端粒长度调节郑晓飞王升启孙志贤（军事医学科学院放射医学研究所,北京１００８５０）关键词端粒端粒结合蛋白端粒是真核细胞染色体的末端序列,其功能是保持染色体的稳定性。端粒ＤＮＡ的长短和稳定性决定了细胞的寿命,并与细胞的癌变和衰老有关。端粒Ｄ...     

解析2009年度诺贝尔生理学或医学奖——端粒与端粒酶

美国加州大学旧金山分校的伊丽莎白·布莱克本（Elizabeth H. Blackburn）、约翰·霍普金斯医学院的卡罗尔·格雷德（Carol W. Greider）和马萨诸塞州总医院的杰克·绍斯塔克（Jack W. Szostak）,因为“发现端粒和端粒酶如何保护染色体”,而获得2009年度诺贝尔奖生理学或医学奖。这个结果已在很多人的意料之中。因为端粒和端粒酶的发现揭示了线性染色体末端复制的机制,以及端粒和端粒酶在保护染色体及维持遗传稳定性中的中心作用。端粒和端粒酶的发现为科学家认识并探索衰老和肿瘤的发生机制开辟了新领域,对预防和治疗衰老及与衰老相关的疾病（如肿瘤）具有重要科学和应用意义。     

端粒与端粒酶的研究——解读2009年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖

三位美国科学家(Elizabeth H. Blackburn, Carol W. Greider 和Jack W. Szostak)因发现“端粒和端粒酶是如何保护染色体的”获得了2009年的诺贝尔生理学或医学奖．端粒是染色体末端的特殊结构,对染色体有保护作用,而端粒酶能合成端粒,使得端粒的长度和结构得以稳定．研究发现,端粒长度和端粒酶活性与细胞的寿命以及很多疾病发生直接相关．随着研究的不断深入,实现合理控制端粒的长度和端粒酶活性成为可能,这将有助于攻克医学领域“癌症、特定遗传病和衰老”三个重要领域的难题,有望研究开发出潜在的新疗法．     

端粒和端粒酶与衰老研究

衰老是一种多因素的复合调控过程,表现为染色体端粒长度的改变、DNA损伤、DNA的甲基化和细胞的氧化损伤等,并已形成了许多学说,而端粒学说成为衰老研究的热点之一.对与衰老紧密相关的因素———端粒、端粒酶的结构及其与衰老关系的研究进展进行综述,阐明对端粒—端粒酶的作用将会在抗衰老方面有着十分重要的理论价值及实际意义.     

端粒、端粒酶在动脉粥样硬化中的研究进展CSCD

端粒是真核生物线性染色体末端的DNA重复序列,维持染色体的稳定性和DNA复制的完整性。DNA复制过程中,端粒逐渐缩短达到临界值时,染色体DNA被破坏而发生复制型衰老。端粒酶是催化端粒合成的酶,但在正常体细胞中活性很低。动脉粥样硬化是一种衰老相关性疾病,为冠心病、脑梗死、外周血管病发生发展的病理基础。新近研究发现,在动脉粥样硬化患者体内存在较短的端粒,并且较短的端粒更容易导致动脉粥样硬化。本文主要综述了参与动脉粥样硬化形成过程中细胞端粒长度和端粒酶活性的变化,以及这些变化对动脉粥样硬化形成的影响,并概括了动脉粥样硬化的危险因素与端粒和端粒酶的关系。     

端粒、端粒酶在动脉粥样硬化中的研究进展

端粒是真核生物线性染色体末端的DNA重复序列,维持染色体的稳定性和DNA复制的完整性。DNA复制过程中,端粒逐渐缩短达到临界值时,染色体DNA被破坏而发生复制型衰老。端粒酶是催化端粒合成的酶,但在正常体细胞中活性很低。动脉粥样硬化是一种衰老相关性疾病,为冠心病、脑梗死、外周血管病发生发展的病理基础。新近研究发现,在动脉粥样硬化患者体内存在较短的端粒,并且较短的端粒更容易导致动脉粥样硬化。本文主要综述了参与动脉粥样硬化形成过程中细胞端粒长度和端粒酶活性的变化,以及这些变化对动脉粥样硬化形成的影响,并概括了动脉粥样硬化的危险因素与端粒和端粒酶的关系。     

一种含有端粒重复序列非编码RNA的发现及最新研究进展

端粒是染色体末端的特化结构,由简单呈串联线性排列的核酸重复序列及相关蛋白质组成。其核酸序列具有高度的保守性,均富含GC。在人类为TTAGGG的高度重复序列具有维持基因组完整性的作用。端粒功能异常会导致染色体失去稳定性,促进肿瘤的发生和发展。以往认为端粒附近区域不具有转录活性,但最近在Science杂志上Azzalin等首次报道了该区域可以转录一种非编码RNA,即端粒RNA(telomeric RNA)。该分子具有特殊的UUAGGG重复序列,在调控端粒长度和端粒酶活性上具有重要作用,在发育、衰老和肿瘤发生发展等研究中已成为热点。该文将对近期有关端粒RNA的研究进展予以综述。     

Telomere length, stem cells and aging

Telomere shortening occurs concomitant with organismal aging, and it is accelerated in the context of human diseases associated with mutations in telomerase, such as some cases of dyskeratosis congenita, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and aplastic anemia. People with these diseases, as well as Terc-deficient mice, show decreased lifespan coincidental with a premature loss of tissue renewal, which suggests that telomerase is rate-limiting for tissue homeostasis and organismal survival. These findings have gained special relevance as they suggest that telomerase activity and telomere length can directly affect the ability of stem cells to regenerate tissues. If this is true, stem cell dysfunction provoked by telomere shortening may be one of the mechanisms responsible for organismal aging in both humans and mice. Here, we will review the current evidence linking telomere shortening to aging and stem cell dysfunction.     

Telomerase therapeutics for degenerative diseases

Telomerase is active in early embryonic and fetal development but is down-regulated in all human somatic tissues before birth. Since telomerase is virtually absent or only transiently active in normal somatic cells throughout postnatal life, telomere length gradually decreases as a function of age in most human tissues. Although telomerase repression likely evolved as a tumor suppressor mechanism, a growing body of evidence from epidemiology and genetic studies point to a role of telomerase repression and short telomeres in a broad spectrum of diseases: (a) Humans with shorter than average telomere length are at increased risk of dying from heart disease, stroke, or infection; (b) Patients with Dyskeratosis congenita are born with shortened telomeres due to mutations in telomerase components, suffer from a variety of proliferative tissue disorders, and typically die early of bone marrow failure; and (c) Individuals with long-term chronic stress or infections have accelerated telomere shortening compared to age-matched counterparts. Telomerase activation may prove useful in the treatment of diseases associated with telomere loss. While human cells dividing in culture lose telomeric DNA and undergo changes that mirror certain age- or disease-associated changes in vivo, telomerase transduced cells have extended replicative capacities, increased resistance to stress, improved functional activities in vitro and in vivo, and no loss of differentiation capacity or growth control. In addition, telomerase transduction in vivo can prevent telomere dysfunction and cirrhotic changes in liver of telomerase knockout mice. Thus, pharmacological activation of telomerase has significant potential for the treatment of a broad spectrum of chronic or degenerative diseases.     

Role of telomere in endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerosis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Telomeres consist of repeats of G-rich sequence at the end of chromosomes. These DNA repeats are synthesized by enzymatic activity associated with an RNA protein complex called telomerase. In most somatic cells, telomerase activity is insufficient, and telomere length decreases with increasing cell division, resulting in an irreversible cell growth arrest, termed cellular senescence. Cellular senescence is associated with an array of phenotypic changes suggestive of aging. Until recently, cellular senescence has largely been studied as an in-vitro phenomenon; however, there is accumulating evidence that indicates a critical role of telomere function in the pathogenesis of human atherosclerosis. This review attempts to summarize recent work in vascular biology that supports the "telomere hypothesis". We discuss the possible relevance of telomere function to vascular aging and the therapeutic potential of telomere manipulation. RECENT FINDINGS: It has been reported that many of the changes in senescent vascular cell behavior are consistent with known changes seen in age-related vascular diseases. Introduction of telomere malfunction has been shown to lead to endothelial dysfunction that promotes atherogenesis, whereas telomere lengthening extends cell lifespan and protects against endothelial dysfunction associated with senescence. Indeed, recent studies have demonstrated that telomere attrition and cellular senescence occur in the blood vessels and are associated with human atherosclerosis. SUMMARY: Recent findings suggest that vascular cell senescence induced by telomere shortening may contribute to atherogenesis and may provide insights into a novel treatment of antisenescence to prevent atherosclerosis.     

Behaviour of telomere and telomerase during aging and regeneration in zebrafish

Telomere length and telomerase activity are important factors in the pathobiology of human diseases. Age-related diseases and premature aging syndromes are characterized by short telomeres, which can compromise cell viability, whereas tumour cells can prevent telomere loss by aberrantly upregulating telomerase. The zebrafish (Danio rerio) offers multiple experimental manipulation advantages over other vertebrate models and, therefore, it has been recently considered as a potential model for aging, cancer, and regeneration studies. However, it has only partially been exploited to shed light on these fundamental biological processes. The aim of this study was, therefore, to investigate telomere length and telomerase expression and activity in different strains of zebrafish obtained from different stock centres to determine whether they undergo any changes during aging and regeneration. We found that although both telomerase expression and telomere length increased from embryo to adulthood stages, they drastically declined in aged fish despite telomerase activity was detected in different tissues of old fish. In addition, we observed a weaker upregulation of telomerase expression in regenerating fins of old fish, which well correlates with their impaired regeneration capacity. Strikingly, telomeres were elongated or maintained during the fin regeneration process at all ages and after repeated amputations, likely to support high cell proliferation rates. We conclude that the expression of telomerase and telomere length are closely related during the entire life cycle of the fish and that these two parameters can be used as biomarkers of aging in zebrafish. Our results also reveal a direct relationship between the expression of telomerase, telomere length and the efficiency of tissue regeneration.     

Telomeres and telomerase in the fetal origins of cardiovascular disease: a review

Telomeres are noncoding functional DNA repeat sequences at the ends of chromosomes that decrease in length by a predictable amount at each cell division. When the telomeres become critically short, the cell is no longer able to replicate and enters cellular senescence. Recent work has shown that within individuals, telomere length tracks with cardiovascular health and aging and is also affected by growth variation, both prenatally and postnatally. Therefore telomere length can be a marker of both growth history (cell division) and tissue function (senescence). Relationships between early growth and later health have emerged as a research focus in the epidemiology of chronic diseases of aging, such as heart disease and diabetes. The "fetal origins" literature has demonstrated that hormonal and nutritional aspects of the intrauterine environment not only affect fetal growth but also can permanently alter the metabolic program of the individual. Smaller infants tend to have a higher risk of developing cardiovascular disease. Much less attention has been paid to possible genetic links between the processes of early growth and later disease. Our aim in this review is to summarize evidence for one such genetic mechanism, telomere attrition, that may underlie the fetal origins of cardiovascular disease and to discuss this mechanism in light of the evolution of senescence.     

Telomere reduction in human liver tissues with age and chronic inflammation

Telomere shortening in human liver with aging and chronic inflammation was examined by hybridization protection assay using telomere and Alu probes. The reduction rate of telomere repeats in normal liver (23 samples from patients 17-81 years old) was 120 bp per year, which is in good agreement with the reported reduction rate in fibroblasts of 50-150 bp at each cell division and replacement rate of human liver cells, once a year. Mean telomere repeat length shortened to about 10 kbp in normal livers from 80-year-old individuals. The number of telomere repeats in chronic hepatitis (26 samples) and liver cirrhosis (11 samples) was significantly lower than that in normal liver of the same age (P < 0. 01). Telomere length in all these chronic liver disease samples, other than two exceptions, was not reduced shorter than 5 kbp, which was assumed to give a limit of proliferation (Hayflick's limit) to untransformed cells.     

Inheritance of telomere length in a bird

Telomere dynamics are intensively studied in human ageing research and epidemiology, with many correlations reported between telomere length and age-related diseases, cancer and death. While telomere length is influenced by environmental factors there is also good evidence for a strong heritable component. In human, the mode of telomere length inheritance appears to be paternal and telomere length differs between sexes, with females having longer telomeres than males. Genetic factors, e.g. sex chromosomal inactivation, and non-genetic factors, e.g. antioxidant properties of oestrogen, have been suggested as possible explanations for these sex-specific telomere inheritance and telomere length differences. To test the influence of sex chromosomes on telomere length, we investigated inheritance and sex-specificity of telomere length in a bird species, the kakapo (Strigops habroptilus), in which females are the heterogametic sex (ZW) and males are the homogametic (ZZ) sex. We found that, contrary to findings in humans, telomere length was maternally inherited and also longer in males. These results argue against an effect of sex hormones on telomere length and suggest that factors associated with heterogamy may play a role in telomere inheritance and sex-specific differences in telomere length.     

Lifestyle impacts on the aging‐associated expression of biomarkers of DNA damage and telomere dysfunction in human blood

Cellular aging is characterized by telomere shortening, which can lead to uncapping of chromosome ends (telomere dysfunction) and activation of DNA damage responses. There is some evidence that DNA damage accumulates during human aging and that lifestyle factors contribute to the accumulation of DNA damage. Recent studies have identified a set of serum markers that are induced by telomere dysfunction and DNA damage, and these markers showed an increased expression in blood during human aging. Here, we investigated the influence of lifestyle factors (such as exercise, smoking, body mass) on the aging‐associated expression of serum markers of DNA damage (CRAMP, EF‐1α, stathmin, n‐acetyl‐glucosaminidase and chitinase) in comparison with other described markers of cellular aging (p16^INK4a upregulation and telomere shortening) in human peripheral blood. The study shows that lifestyle factors have an age‐independent impact on the expression level of biomarkers of DNA damage. Smoking and increased body mass indices were associated with elevated levels of biomarkers of DNA damage independent of the age of the individuals. In contrast, exercise was associated with an age‐independent reduction in the expression of biomarkers of DNA damage in human blood. The expression of biomarkers of DNA damage correlated positively with p16^INK4a expression and negatively with telomere length in peripheral blood T‐lymphocytes. Together, these data provide experimental evidence that both aging and lifestyle impact on the accumulation of DNA damage during human aging.     

Telomere length analysis in residents of a community exposed to arsenic

Differentiated cells telomere length is an indicator of senescence or lifespan; however, in peripheral blood leukocytes the relative shortening of the telomere has been considered as a biological marker of aging, and lengthening telomere as an associated risk to cancer. Individual’s age, type of tissue, lifestyle, and environmental factors make telomere length variable. The presence of environmental carcinogens such as arsenic (As) influence as causal agents of these alterations, the main modes of action for As described are oxidative stress, reduction in DNA repair capacity, overexpression of genes, alteration of telomerase activity, and damage to telomeres. The telomeres of leukocytes resulting a finite capacity of replication due to the low or no activity of the telomerase enzyme, therefore, elongation telomere in this kind of cells is a potential biological marker associated with the development of chronic diseases and carcinogenesis.     

Telomere Length Profiles in Humans: All Ends are Not Equal

Telomere length is an important parameter of telomere function since it determines number of aspects controlling chromosome stability and cell division. Since telomeres shorten with age in humans and premature aging syndromes are often associated with the presence of short telomeres, it has been proposed that telomere length is also an important parameter for organismal aging. How mean telomere lengths are determined in humans remains puzzling, but it is clear that genetic and epigenetic factors appear to be of great importance. Experimental evidence obtained from many different organisms has provided the basis for a widely accepted counting mechanism based on a negative feedback loop for telomerase activity at the level of individual telomeres. In addition, recent studies in both normal and pathological contexts point to the existence of chromosome-specific mechanisms of telomere length regulation determining a telomere length profile, which is inherited and maintained throughout life. In this review, we recapitulate the available data, propose a synthetic view of telomere length control mechanisms in humans and suggest new approaches to test current hypotheses.