Association of aphid life stages using DNA sequences： A case study of tribe Eriosomatini （Hemiptera： Aphididae Pemphiginae）

Association of aphid life stages based on a portion of COI sequence was applied in Eriosomatini. Three aphid specimens, nos. 17496, 19265a, and 19265b collected on Gramineae roots all clustered with Tetraneura chinensis Mordvilko with strong support. The average pairwise p-distance among the four taxa was 0.001 （range, 0.000-0.002）, and that among all the ingroup taxa was 0.065 （range, 0.000-0.141）. This indicated that nos. 17496 and 19265 b were the secondary-host morphs of T. chinensis. In this paper the secondary host morph of T. chinensis is described for the first time. With the identification of more species＇ secondary-host morphs, aphids identification based on this morph will be made easily.     

Biology and life table studies of the oriental tobacco budworm,Helicoverpa assulta （Lepidoptera： Noctuidae）, influenced by different larval diets

Development, survivorship, pupal weight, oviposition, and life table parameters of the oriental tobacco budworm, Helicoverpa assulta Guenée, were evaluated in the laboratory on an artificial diet, pepper （Capsicumfrutescens L.）, and tobacco （Nicotiana tobacum L.）. We found that the average developmental time of immature stages was longest on tobacco （36.2 d）, intermediate on pepper （34.4 d）, and shortest on artificial diet （33.5 d）. Immature survival from egg to pupa varied from 31% on tobacco, 43% on pepper, and 74% on artificial diet. Pupal weight ranged from 197.4 mg/pupa on tobacco, 233.1 mg/pupa on pepper and 253.4 mg/pupa on artificial diet. The average numbers of eggs laid by adults reared as larvae on the artificial diet, pepper, or tobacco were 614, 421 and 334 eggs/female, respectively. Numbers of remaining eggs in ovaries of the adult females reared as larvae on the artificial diet, pepper, or tobacco were 16, 26, and 42 eggs/female, respectively. The longevity of adult females developed from larvae reared on the three diets was not significantly different, whereas the longevity of male adults from the larvae reared on artificial diet was longer （16.8 d） than that for males reared on tobacco （13.8 d） and pepper （13.3 d）. The intrinsic, finite, gross, and net rates of increase were highest for females reared as larvae on artificial diet, lowest for females emerging from larvae reared on tobacco, and intermediate for females emerging from larvae reared on pepper. Generation times and doubling time of H. assulta were shortest for larvae fed artificial diet, intermediate from larvae reared on pepper, and longest from larvae reared on tobacco. We concluded that the artificial diet was the most suitable larval diet ofH. assulta followed by pepper, and tobacco.     

Differential attraction of parasitoids in relation to specificity of kairomones from herbivores and their by-products

Infochemicals are used by foraging parasitoids in the host selection process from habitat preference until host recognition. Kairomones from the herbivore host plays a vital role in the attraction of parasitoids, particularly in the micro-habitat. Parasitoids are specifically attracted to their respective herbivore species even when different herbivores are present on the same plant. Chemicals emitted from different stages of host （eggs, larvae, pupae, adult）, host by-products （e.g., frass, exuviae, mandibular gland secretions, defense secretions etc.）, or intra-specific infochemicals （pheromones） can be main signals for the parasitoids. Parasitoids can differentiate between host and non-host, between different hosts and host stages by perceiving specific volatile and contact kairomones from the host itself, host along with its by-product, by-products alone or intra-specific infochemicals; of which frass （by-product） and intra-specific infochemicals are the most reported ones. Adult and larval parasitoids have been reported to be attracted to kairomones of their target stage or byproduct of their host. Pupal parasitoids have been found to utilize kairomones from the preceding host stage while egg parasitoids are known to exploit a variety of host infochemicals, for example, either from eggs themselves or other non-target host stages, especially adults and adult-related by-products. The kairomonal chemicals identified so far include various groups, but mainly hydrocarbons. A high degree of host specificity and host acceptance is important for the parasitoids as any mistake may result in the loss of fitness.     

Genome-wide analysis of Nilaparvata lugens nymphal responses to high-density and low-quality rice hosts

The brown planthopper （BPH） Nilaparvata lugens is an economically impor- tant pest on rice plants. In this study, the higher population density and yellow-ripe stage of rice plants were used to construct adverse survival conditions （ASC） against BPH nymphs. Simultaneously, the low population density and tillering stage of rice plants were used to establish a suitable survival condition （SSC） as a control. Solexa/Illumina sequencing was used to identify genes of BPH nymphs responding to ASC. Significantly longer duration development of BPH nymphs and significantly lower brachypterous ratio of BPH adults were observed by ASC compared with SSC. A total of 2 544 differentially expressed genes （DEGs） were obtained and analyzed by BLASTx, Gene Ontology and KEGG Orthology. Gene ontology analysis revealed that the DEGs were mainly involved in categories of cell, cell part, cellular process, binding, catalytic, organelle and metabolic processes. 1138 DEGs having enzyme commission numbers were assigned to different metabolic pathways. The largest clusters were neurodegenerative diseases （137, 12.0%）, followed by carbohy- drate metabolism （113, 9.9%）, amino acid metabolism （94, 8.3%）, nucleotide metabolism （76, 6.7%）, energy metabolism （64, 5.6%）, translation （60, 5.3%）, lipid metabolism （58, 5.1%）, and folding, sorting and degradation （52, 4.6%）. Expressing profile of 11 DEGs during eight nymphal developmental stages of BPH were analyzed by quantitative real- time polymerase chain reaction. The 11 genes exhibited differential expression between ASC and SSC during at least one developmental stage. The DEGs identified in this study provide molecular proof of how BPH reconfigures its gene expression profile to adapt to overcrowding and low-quality hosts.     

New combination in Veronica （Scrophulariaceae s.l.） based on morphological characters and the seed storage protein polymorphism

Veronica erciyasdagi （M. A. Fischer） C. Vural comb. ＆ stat. nov., previously regarded as a variety, is proposed as a new combination, based on the morphological characters and seed storage protein polymorphism presented in this study. In addition, information about the ecology and conservation status of Veronica erciyasdagi was reported. This taxon is endemic to central Anatolia, Turkey and is critically endangered.     

Mating system and genetic diversity of a rare desert legume Ammopiptanthus nanus （Leguminosae）

Ammopiptanthus nanus is an endangered evergreen shrub endemic to the deserts of central Asia and plays an important role in delaying further desertification. We examined allozyme variation and AFLP diversity in A. nanus populations and investigated the mating system of this species using progeny arrays assayed for polymorphic allozyme loci. Mating system analysis in the Keyi＇eryongke＇er population showed low levels of outcrossing, and strong inbreeding depression. Low levels of genetic variation were detected at both population （allozyme, Pp=14.0%, A=l.14, He=0.031; AFLP, Pp=14.5%, Shannon＇s information index I=0.063） and species （allozyme, Pp=21.1%, A=1.21, He=0.040; AFLP, Pp=20.9%, I=0.083） levels; while moderate genetic differentiation existed among populations, as indicated by allozymes （Gsa-=0.081） and AFLP （GST=0.151-0.193）. Founder effect, bottlenecks in evolutionary history, the mixed mating system and co-ancestry may have influenced the level of genetic diversity in A. nanus. Markers of both types provide new insights for conservation management, indicating that the Biao＇ertuokuoyi and Keyi＇eryongke＇er populations should be given priority for in situ conservation and regarded as seed sources for ex situ conservation.     

The impact of attractants on pocket gopher trapping

Pocket gophers （Geomyidae） have an extensive impact on both natural and agricultural systems. Trapping is a tech- nique often used to sample and manage these populations. The identification of an attractant that increases capture rates of pocket gophers would greatly assist researchers and pest management professionals alike. Therefore, we tested the attractiveness of four attractants （peanut butter, anise, grapefruit attractant, and carrot） plus a control （no attractant） using uncovered and covered trap sets to determine what impact they have on visitation and capture rates of pocket gophers. We also determined how the impact of cover status and attractants differ across varying weights and gender of pocket gophers. We found no direct effect of any attracrant on visitation and capture rates of pocket gophers, nor on the gender of captured individuals. However, when no attractant was used, the mtmber of pocket gophers captured per 100 trap nights was greater when trap sets were uncovered vs. when covered, and capture rates were generally high and consistent when using peanut butter as an attractant. Additionally, we noted that covered trap sets that were baited with peanut butter yielded heavier pocket gopher captures than uncovered trap sets using this same attractant. This is key, given the difficulty associated with capturing older, more experienced individuals. Combined with data from a previous investigation, this suggests that there is no advantage to using any attractant when utilizing uncovered trap sets, but there is likely some benefit to using peanut butter in covered trap sets [Current Zoology 60 （4）： 472-478, 2014].     

Evolution of deceit by worthless donations in a nuptial gift-giving spider

Males of the nursery web spider Pisaura mirabil usually offer an insect prey wrapped in white silk as a nuptial gift to facilitate copulation. Males exploit female foraging preferences in a sexual context as females feed on the gift during copula- tion. It is possible for males to copulate without a gift, however strong female preference for the gift leads to dramatically higher mating success for gift-giving males. Females are polyandrous, and gift-giving males achieve higher mating success, longer copulations, and increased sperm transfer that confer advantages in sperm competition. Intriguingly, field studies show that ap- proximately one third of males carry a worthless gift consisting of dry and empty insect exoskeletons or plant fragments wrapped in white silk. Silk wrapping disguises gift content and females are able to disclose gift content only after accepting and feeding on the gift, meanwhile males succeed in transferring sperm. The evolution of deceit by worthless gift donation may be favoured by strong intra-sexual competition and costs of gift-construction including prey capture, lost foraging opportunities and investment in silk wrapping. Females that receive empty worthless gifts terminate copulation sooner, which reduces sperm transfer and likely disadvantages males in sperm competition. The gift-giving trait may thus become a target of sexually antagonistic co-evolution, where deceit by worthless gifts leads to female resistance to the trait. We discuss factors such as female mating rate and intensity of sperm competition that may shape the evolution of male deception, and how ecological factors may influence the evolution and maintenance of worthless gifts as an evolutionarily stable alternative mating strategy by frequency dependent selection     

Animal personality and the ecological impacts of freshwater non-native species

While the ecological impacts of invasive species have been demonstrated for many taxonomic groups, the potential effects of behavioural variation among nonnative individuals （i.e. personality） on these impacts have been largely overlooked. This is despite the fact that recent studies have demonstrated that, by nature, the three first stages of biological invasions （i.e. transport, establishment and spread） can lead to personalitybiased populations. Freshwater ecosystems provide a unique oppor tunity to investigate this issue, notably because the ecological impacts of nonnative species have been extensively documented and because animal personality has been widely studied using freshwater model species. Here, we aim at developing some per spectives on the potential effects of animal personality on the ecological impacts of freshwater nonnative species across levels of biological organizations. At the individual level, personality types have been demonstrated to affect the physiolo gy, metabolism, life history traits and fitness of individuals. We used these effects to discuss how they could subsequently impact invaded popula tions and, in turn, recipient communities. We also discussed how these might translate into changes in the structure of food webs and the functioning of invaded ecosystems. Finally we discussed how these perspectives could interact with the management of invasive species .     

Novel functions of GABA signaling in adult neurogenesis

Neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutiric acid （GABA） through ionotropic GABAA and metabotropic GABAB receptors plays key roles in modulating the development, plasticity and function of neuronal networks. GABA is inhibitory in mature neurons but excitatory in immature neurons, neuroblasts and neural stem/progenitor cells （NSCs/ NPCs）. The switch from excitatory to inhibitory occurs following the development of glutamatergic synaptic input and results from the dynamic changes in the expression of Na＋/K＋/2CF co-transporter NKCC1 driving CF influx and neuron-specific K＋/Cl co-transporter KCC2 driving Cl efflux. The developmental transition of KCC2 expression is regulated by Disrupted-in-Schizophrenia 1 （DISC1） and brain-derived neurotrophic factor （BDNF） signaling. The excitatory GABA signaling during early neurogenesis is important to the activity/experience-induced regulation of NSC quiescence, NPC proliferation, neuroblast migration and new-born neuronal maturation/functional integration. The inhibitory GABA signaling allows for the sparse and static functional networking essential for learning/memory development and maintenance.     

Evolution of sexual size dimorphism and its relationship with sex ratio in carabid beetles of Genus Ceroglossus Solier

Although the degree of mate competition, given extreme differences in sex ratio, explains much of the pattern of male-biased size dimorphism among diverse taxa, it fails for some species which have potential for intense male competition for mates and yet exhibit little or no sexual size dimorphism （SSD）. This fact suggest that species with low SSD should be express the effect of evolutionary pressure in non-obvious geometrical shape promoted by sex ratio in an evolutionary time scale. To evaluate this hypothesis we used phylogenetic comparative method in a Bayesian framework to investigate the evolution of SSD and the role of sex ratio at inter-specific level in the species of Ceroglossus （Coleoptera： Carabidae）. In our results the proportion farthest from 1：1 is associated with more disparate body shape, even though the entire group has minimum variation in sex ratio, which is an intrinsic life history character of this group considering its phylogenetic conservatism or phylogenetic signal. We suggest that the sex ratio has determined the dimorphism degree during evolution of this group, since both traits have increased or decreased together during the species divergence （i.e. positive phylogenetic correlation： r2=0.85）. We suggest that morphological studies of SSD will benefit from using comparative method with Bayesian approaches to assess the effect of phylogenetic history and its uncertainty. Finally, this will be allow to researchers to quantify the uncertainty of specific evolutionary hypotheses accounting for observed sexual dimorphism patterns.     

Fine structural description of the compound eye of the Madagascar ＇hissing cockroach＇ Gromphadorhinaportentosa （Dictyoptera： Blaberidae）

The compound eyes of the wingless adults of the Madagascar ＇hissing cockroach＇ Gromphadorhinaportentosa Sachum, 1853 were examined by light and electron microscopy. Each eye contains 2 400-2 500 mostly hexagonal facets. However, irregularities affecting both shape and size of the ommatidia are relatively common, especially towards the margins of the eye. An individual ommatidium of this eucone type of apposition eye contains eight retinula cells, which give rise to a centrally-fused, tiered rhabdom. The distal end of the latter is funnel-shaped and accommodates the proximal end of the cone in its midst, Further below, the rhabdom （then formed by the rhabdomeres of four retinula cells） assumes a squarish profile with microvilli aligned in two directions at right-angle to each other. Cross sections through the proximal regions of the rhabdom display triangular rhabdom outlines and microvilli （belonging to 3-4 retinula cells different from those involved in the squarish more distal rhabdom） that run in three directions inclined to one another by 120°. Overall the organization of the eye conforms to the orthopteroid pattern and particularly closely resembles that of the American cockroach Periplaneta americana. However, since G. portentosa possesses fewer ommatidia, this could be a consequence of its inability to fly. On the other hand, the large size of the facets and the voluminous rhabdoms suggest considerable absolute sensitivity and an ability to detect the plane of linearly polarized light. Based on the pattern of microvillus orientations in combination with the crepuscular lifestyle G. portentosa leads and the habitat it occurs in, the prediction is made that this insect uses its green receptors for e-vector discrimination in the environment of down-welling light that reaches the forest floor.     

Using the movement patterns of reintroduced animals to improve reintroduction success

Despite their importance to conservation, reintroductions are still a risky endeavor and tend to fail, highlighting the need for more efficient post-release monitoring techniques. Reintroduced animals are released into unfamiliar novel environ ments and must explore their surroundings to gain knowledge in order to survive. According to theory, knowledge gain should be followed by subsequent changes to the animal＇s movement behavior, making movement behavior an excellent indicator of reintroduction progress. We aim to conceptually describe a logical process that will enable the inclusion of behavior （in particular, movement behavior） in management decision-making post-reintroductions, and to do so, we provide four basic components that a manager should look for in the behaviors of released animals. The suggested components are release-site fidelity, recurring locations, proximity to other individuals, and individual variation in movement behavior. These components are by no means the only possible ones available to a manager, but they provide an efficient tool to understanding animals＇ decision-making based on ecological theory; namely, the exploration-exploitation trade-off that released animals go through, and which underlies their behavior. We demonstrate our conceptual approach using data from two ungulate species reintroduced in Israel： the Persian fallow deer Dama mesopotamica and the Arabian oryx Oryx leucoryx [Current Zoology 60 （4）： 515-526, 2014] .     

Does defensive posture increase mimetic fidelity of caterpillars with eyespots to their putative snake models？

Organisms often evolve behaviours that increase or reinforce the protection from predators afforded by their morpho- logical defences. For example, mimetic animals may adopt postures or locomotory behaviours that emulate a characteristic fea- ture of their model to increase predator deception. Caterpillars with eyespots are thought to mimic snakes, and when threatened many of these caterpillars adopt a posture that appears to enhance this resemblance. Herein we evaluate the quantitative strength of evidence of behavioural mimicry in the caterpillars of 14 species by comparing how closely a series of putative snake-mimicking caterpillars resemble snakes while at rest and when threatened. Specifically, we quantified the head morphology and eye position of a range of snake species, as well as the shape of the apparent head （i.e. anterior body segments） and position of eyespots in caterpillars resting or in their defensive posture. This allowed us to objectively examine evidence for an increased resemblance to either snakes generally, or to Viperidae snakes specifically, upon adopting the defensive posture. Widening the anterior body segments during the defensive posture typically made caterpillars appear more viper-like as opposed to more snake-like in general. Enhanced resemblance to vipers upon mounting the defensive posture was apparent only from the dorsal view. Laterally, caterpillars more closely resembled snakes in the resting posture and shifting to the defensive posture instead reduced mimetic fidelity, Overall we found evidence for behavioural mimicry in all 14 species examined. We highlight that objectively quantifying mimetic fidelity can help identify key features involved in deception .     

What is the sound of fear？ Behavioral responses of white-crowned sparrows Zonotrichia leucophrys to synthesized nonlinear acoustic phenomena

Fear and anxiety may be adaptive responses to life-threatening situations, and animals may communicate fear to others vocally. A fundamental understanding of fear inducing sounds is important for both wildlife conservation and management because it helps us understand how to design repellents and also how （and why） animals may be negatively impacted by anthropogenic sounds. Nonlinear phenomena--sounds produced by the desynchronization of vibrations in a sound production system-are commonly found in stress-induced animal vocalizations, such as in alarm calls, mobbing calls, and fear screams. There are several functional hypotheses for these nonlinear phenomena. One specific hypothesis is the unpredictability hypothesis, which suggests that because nonlinear phenomena are more variable and somewhat unpredictable, animals are less likely to habituate to them. Animals should, therefore, have a prolonged response to sounds with nonlinear phenomena than sounds without them. Most of the studies involving nonlinear phenomena have used mammalian subjects and conspecific stimuli. Our study fo- cused on white-crowned sparrows （Zonotrichia leucophrys ssp. oriantha） and used synthesized acoustic stimuli to investigate behavioral responses to stimuli with and without nonlinear phenomena. We predicted that birds would be less relaxed after hearing a stimulus with a nonlinear component. We calculated the difference from baseline of proportion of time spent in relaxed behaviors and performed pair-wise comparisons between a pure tone control stimulus and each of three experimental stimuli, including a frequency jump up, a frequency jump down, and white noise. These comparisons showed that in the 30q50 s after the playback experiment, birds were significantly less relaxed after hearing noise or an abrupt frequency jump down an octave but not an abrupt frequency jump up an octave or a pure tone. Nonlinear phenomena, therefore, may be generally arousing to animals and may explain why these acoustic properties are commonly fou     

异型雄蕊植物花内雄蕊的分化

Flowers that have heteromorphic stamens （heterantherous flowers） have intrigued many researchers ever since the phenomenon was discovered in the 19th century. The morphological differentiation in androecia has been suggested as a reflection of ＂labor division＂ in pollination in which one type of stamens attracts pollinators and satisfies their demand for pollen as food and the other satisfies the plant＇s need for safe gamete dispersal. The extent and patterns of stamen differentiation differ notably among taxa with heterantherous flowers. Seven species with heteromorphic stamens in three genera were sampled from Leguminosae and Melastomataceae, and the morphological difference of androecia, pollen content, pollen histochemistry and viability, pollen micro- morphology, as well as the main pollinators were examined and compared. Pollen number differs significantly between stamen sets of the same flower in most species investigated, and a correlation of pollen number and anther size was substantiated. Higher pollen viabilities were found in the long （pollinating） stamens of Senna alata （L.） Roxb. and S. bicapsularis （L.） Roxb. Dimorphic pollen exine ornamentation is reported here for the first time in Fordiophytonfaberi Stapf. The height of stigma and anther tips of the long stamens in natural conditions was proved to be highly correlated, supporting the hypothesis that they contact similar areas of the pollinator＇s body.     

Comparative analysis of chromosome segregation in human,yeasts and trypanosome

Chromosome segregation is a tightly regulated process through which duplicated genetic materials are equally partitioned into daughter cells. During the past decades, tremendous efforts have been made to understand the molecular mechanism of chromosome segregation using animals and yeasts as model systems. Recently, new insights into chromosome segregation have gradually emerged using trypanosome, an early branching parasitic protozoan, as a model organism. To uncover the unique aspects of chromosome segregation in trypanosome, which potentially could serve as new drug targets for anti-trypanosome chemotherapy, it is necessary to perform a comparative analysis of the chromosome segregation machinery between trypanosome and its human host. Here, we briefly review the current knowledge about chromosome segregation in human and Trypanosoma brucei, with a focus on the regulation of cohesin and securin degradation triggered by the activation of the anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome （APC/C）. We also include yeasts in our comparative analysis since some of the original discoveries were made using budding and fission yeasts as the model organisms and, therefore, these could provide hints about the evolution of the machinery. We highlight both common and unique features in these model systems and also provide perspectives for future research in trypanosome.     

A meta-analysis of the effects of geolocator application on birds

An increasing trend in use of tracking devices such as geolocators is based on the assumption that the information gathered from such devices provides reliable information about the migratory behavior of free-living birds. This underlying as- sumption is rarely tested, as evidenced by the absence in many studies of controls, in particular treated controls, and so far never with a reasonable statistical power. Published studies have shown reduced survival prospects or delayed breeding in some species, suggesting that there may be reason to doubt that tracking devices provide unbiased information. Therefore, we conducted a meta-analysis of studies applying geolocators to wild birds to determine whether geolocators affected fitness components. Ge- olocators had an overall negative effect on fitness components, in particular survival, and ecological variables. Effect size was larger for aerial foragers than for other species. Moreover the leg band attachment method was more detrimental for birds than the leg-loop backpack harness. A meta-regression model of effect size showed independent negative effects of geolocators on ae- rial foragers, smaller species, species with smaller migration distances and in studies where geolocators were attached with a ring. These results suggest that geolocator studies should be interpreted with caution, but also raise questions whether it is ethically defensible to use geolocators on aerial foragers or small species without carrying out robust pilot studies.     

Use of a dietary exposure system for screening of insecticidal compounds for their toxicity to the planthopper Laodelphax striatellus

We developed a dietary exposure assay for screening insecticidal compounds for their toxicity and for assessing the side effects of insecticidal proteins produced by genetically engineered （GE） plants on the planthopper Laodelphax striatellus Fallen. The fitness bioassay confirmed that the diet fulfills the requirements to be used in the dietary exposure system. To validate the efficacy of the dietary exposure system, nymphs of L. striatellus were fed diets treated with different concentrations of an inorganic stomach poison, potassium arsenate （PA）, or a cysteine protease inhibitor, E-64. The results showed that with increasing concentrations of E-64, the larval development time was prolonged, the adult weight was reduced and the survival rate of L. striatellus was decreased. Similarly the survival rates of L. striatellus consistently decreased with increasing PA content in the diet. The data indicate that the dietary exposure assay is able to detect the effects of insecticidal compounds on L. striatellus. Subsequently, this assay was successfully used for assessing the potential toxicity of Cry2Aa. The results showed that L. striatellus larvae were not negatively affected when fed the artificial diet containing purified Cry2Aa at 300 μg/g diet. In the assay, the stability and bioactivity of crystal （Cry） proteins in the food sources were confirmed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and sensitive-insect bioassays. These results show that L. striatellus is not sensitive to Cry2Aa. We conclude that the dietary exposure system is valid and useful for assessing the toxicity of insecticidal compounds produced by GE plants on planthoppers.     

The dichotomy of p53 regulation by noncoding RNAs

The p53 tumor suppressor gene is the most frequently mutated gene in cancer. Significant progress has been made to discern the im- portance of p53 in coordinating cellular responses to DNA damage, oncogene activation, and other stresses. Noncoding RNAs are RNA molecules functioning without being translated into proteins. In this work, we discuss the dichotomy of p53 regulation by noncoding RNAs with four unconventional questions. First, is overexpression of microRNAs responsible for p53 inactivation in the absence of p53 mutation？ Second, are there somatic mutations in the noncoding regions of the p53 gene？ Third, is there a germline mutant in the non- coding regions of the p53 gene that predisposes carriers to cancer？ Fourth, can p53 activation mediated by a noncoding RNA mutation cause cancer？ This work highUghts the prominence of noncoding RNAs in p53 dysregutation and tumorigenesis.