The role of behavior in tern conservation

Behavioral research has long had an important role in the conservation of terns （Ayes： Stemidae）. Habitat management and restoration of breeding colony sites depends on knowledge of the cues used to select colony and nest sites. For example, conspecific attraction with playback and decoys is commonly used to bring terns to suitable colony sites and habitat modification is often used to increase the availability of suitable nest sites. Tern colonies are interconnected by dispersal, and a metapopulation approach is needed for effective management. Population dynamics are therefore affected by behaviors that influence the frequency of movement among colony sites： site fidelity, natal and breeding dispersal, and group adherence. The monogamous breeding system of terns should keep effective population size similar to census population size, but variation in sex ratios （likely resulting from sex differences in behavior） and in parental quality can result in a smaller than expected effective population size. In addition to the behavior of terns, knowledge of the behavior of predators on terns contributes to management plans, because predator behavior can sometimes be manipulated and predation is often performed by only a few specialized individuals. Other examples of links between tern behavior and conservation are also briefly reviewed, such as behavioral toxicology research and studies of behavioral responses to human disturbance and manmade structures. More work is needed on the behavior of migratory terns at staging sites, stopover sites and wintering grounds, and on the behavior of less well-studied species and species in less well-studied geographic regions [Current Zoology 60 （4）： 500-514, 2014].     

Recovering threatened plant species and their habitats: The need for integrated action

As an introduction to the Special Issue on the restoration of threatened plant species and their habitats,this editorial shows how the various papers in the issue address the range of in situ interventions involved in species population management and restoration of their habitat, together with examples of case studies implementing these actions. It stresses the need for integrating these various interventions.It highlights the importance of protected areas in providing a degree of protection for threatened species but also the need to complement this with actions at the species level to ensure the effective conservation and long term persistence of these species. It emphasizes that ecological restoration is a complement to, not a substitute for conservation, and that the balance of effort and allocation of resources between them is a key issue.     

Capturing,protecting and restoring plant diversity in the UK: RBG Kew and the Millennium Seed Bank

Ex situ seed banking is a practical and cost-effective means of preserving wild plant diversity and a crucial complement to the in situ conservation and restoration of species and habitats. As pressures on the natural environment have grown, so has the call for seed banks to provide scientifically-robust,practical solutions to seed-related problems in nature conservation, from single-species recovery and reintroduction to the restoration of complex, dynamic communities at the largest scales. In this paper, we discuss how the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and its Millennium Seed Bank have responded to this call in the United Kingdom. We demonstrate that banked seed collections can provide a range of otherwiseunavailable, high quality, known-origin, genetically-diverse biological materials. The data, expertise and specialist facilities that accompany these collections are also valuable, helping overcome constraints to the collection, production and effective use of native seed. Challenges remain-to ensure ex situ collections protect the species and genetic diversity that will enable plants to adapt to a changing environment, and to find new ways for seed banks to mobilise their resources at a landscape scale.     

Species diversity in restoration plantings: Important factors for increasing the diversity of threatened tree species in the restoration of the Araucaria forest ecosystem

The Araucaria forest ecosystem in southern Brazil is highly threatened: less than one percent of the original forest remains, and what is left is a fragmented agro-mosaic of mostly early-to-late secondary forest patches among high-yield agriculture and timber monocultures. Forest restoration initiatives in this region aim to restore degraded areas, however the limited number of species used in restoration projects represents a missed opportunity for species-rich plantings. High diversity plantings represent a larger number of functional groups and provide a targeted conservation strategy for the high number of threatened species within this ecosystem. This study interviewed nurseries(Ns) and restoration practitioners(RPs) in Parana and Santa Catarina states to identify what species are being cultivated and planted, and what factors are driving the species selection process. An average of 20 species were reportedly used in restoration plantings, most of which are common, widespread species. Baseline data confirms that Ns and RPs have disproportionately low occurrences of threatened species in their inventories and plantings, supporting findings from previous research. Questionnaire responses reveal that opportunities for seed acquisition are an extremely important factor in order for nurseries to increase their diversity of cultivated species. Results also suggest that facilitating speciesrich plantings for restoration practitioners would only be feasible if it did not increase the time required to complete planting projects, as it would minimize their ability to keep costs low. This study proposes solutions for increasing the number of species used in restoration practicedsuch as developing a comprehensive species list, fostering knowledge-sharing between actors, creating seed sharing programs, and increasing coordination of planting projects. Long-term strategies involve complimenting traditional ex situ approaches with emerging inter-situ and quasi in situ conservation strategies which simultaneously provide long-term preservation of genetic diversity and increase seed production of target species.     

Using the movement patterns of reintroduced animals to improve reintroduction success

Despite their importance to conservation, reintroductions are still a risky endeavor and tend to fail, highlighting the need for more efficient post-release monitoring techniques. Reintroduced animals are released into unfamiliar novel environ ments and must explore their surroundings to gain knowledge in order to survive. According to theory, knowledge gain should be followed by subsequent changes to the animal＇s movement behavior, making movement behavior an excellent indicator of reintroduction progress. We aim to conceptually describe a logical process that will enable the inclusion of behavior （in particular, movement behavior） in management decision-making post-reintroductions, and to do so, we provide four basic components that a manager should look for in the behaviors of released animals. The suggested components are release-site fidelity, recurring locations, proximity to other individuals, and individual variation in movement behavior. These components are by no means the only possible ones available to a manager, but they provide an efficient tool to understanding animals＇ decision-making based on ecological theory; namely, the exploration-exploitation trade-off that released animals go through, and which underlies their behavior. We demonstrate our conceptual approach using data from two ungulate species reintroduced in Israel： the Persian fallow deer Dama mesopotamica and the Arabian oryx Oryx leucoryx [Current Zoology 60 （4）： 515-526, 2014] .     

Facultative social parasitism in the allodapine bee Macrogalea berentyensis

Previous research on social parasitism has largely ignored allodapine social parasites, which is surprising given the huge potential of these bees to provide a better understanding of social parasitism. Macrogalea berentyensis, a species that was previously suggested to be a social parasite, was collected in nests of M. ellioti, and also in nests consisting of only M. berentyensis. These f＇mdings, along with morphological and phylogenetic evidence, show that this species is a facultative social parasite. In the independently living M. berentyensis nests, brood were present that had been reared to an advanced stage, suggesting that： （i） these parasites may be effective at foraging and caring for their brood; or （ii） these nests may be colonies where all the hosts had died, and these parasites had yet to disperse. Macrogalea berentyensis is the closest relative of the facultative social parasite, M. antanosy, and both these species represent the most recent evolutionary origin of social parasitism within the allodapines. Further behavioral research on both these parasitic species would therefore have important implications for the understanding of the evolution of social parasitism.     

Translocation of Otostegia bucharica,a highly threatened narrowly distributed relict shrub

Translocation is a recognized means of rescuing imperiled species but the evidence for the long-term success of translocations is limited. We report the successful translocation of reproductive individuals of a critically endangered shrub Otostegia bucharica from a site facing imminent habitat destruction into a nearby natural population of the species. The relocated plants were visited the year after planting and 13 years later to assess short-and long-term plant survival. Significant percentage of plants that survived transplanting shock and very dry spring following transplanting(around 36%), and further decrease of this number in the next 12 years by only 14%, indicated that O. bucharica is amenable to translocation using reproductive plants. Based on results of species distribution modeling, and failed attempts of ex situ cultivation, we propose introduction of this species into areas with suitable climatic and soil conditions.However, because there is currently no nature reserve in Uzbekistan having suitable conditions for the species under the present climate and that expected in the near future, and because all known habitats of O. bucharica are exposed to the very strong anthropogenic pressure, establishment of a new protected area, awareness building and involvement of local community in conservation activities are required to prevent extinction of this extremely rare species.     

Plant diversity of the Kangchenjunga Landscape,Eastern Himalayas

The Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL) in the Eastern Himalayas is a transboundary complex shared by Bhutan, India, and Nepal. It forms a part of the ‘Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot’ and is one of the biologically richest landscapes in the Eastern Himalayas. In this paper, we use secondary information to review and consolidate the knowledge on the flora of the KL. We reviewed 215 journal articles, analysed the history of publications on the flora of the KL, their publication pattern in terms of temporal and spatial distribution and key research areas. Our review shows that the landscape has a long history of botanical research that dates back to the 1840s and progressed remarkably after the 1980s. Most of the studies have been carried out in India, followed by Nepal and Bhutan. The majority of these have been vegetation surveys, followed by research on ethnobotanical aspects and Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). This paper describes the forest types and characteristic species of the KL and details the species richness, diversity and dominant families of seed plants. A total of 5198 species of seed plants belonging to 1548 genera and 216 families have been recorded from the landscape, including 3860 dicots, 1315 monocots and 23 gymnosperms. Among families, Orchidaceae is the most diversely represented family in terms of species richness. This paper also draws attention to the threatened and endemic flora of the KL, including 44 species that are threatened at national and global level and 182 species that are endemic. Finally, the paper reviews the major challenges facing the KL, the conservation efforts and practices that are currently in place and recommends systematic and comprehensive floral surveys, particularly long-term data collection and monitoring and transboundary collaboration, to address the existing knowledge gaps on floral diversity of the KL.     

Individual differences in boldness positively correlate with heart rate in orb-weaving spiders of genus Larinioides

Recent years have seen a dramatic increase in the number of studies devoted to consistent individual differences in behavior, termed ＂behavioral syndromes＂ or animal ＂personality＂. In particular, ecologists and evolutionary biologists alike seek to explore the functional consequences of individuals＇ personalities and explanations for their general maintenance. Understand ing the mechanistic underpinnings to personality is arguably key to a deeper understanding of their functional consequences and maintenance. In particular, consistent individual differences in metabolic rate have been proposed as a general explanation for the maintenance of consistent individual differences in boldness, aggressiveness, and activity level. In this paper we explore whether consistent individual differences in boldness are associated with heat rate, a proxy for metabolic rate, in two species of orbweaving spider： Larinioides cornutus and L. patagiatus. We first documented consistent individual differences in boldness in L. cornutus but not L. patagiatus, as estimated by individuals＇ latency to resume movement following an aversive stimulus. We also measured individuals＇ heart rate twice in a separate situation. We then tested for an association between individuals＇ boldness and their heart rate during these two events. We found that increased boldness was associated with increased heart. Thus, indi viduals that resumed movement quickly following an aversive stimulus also exhibited faster heart rates. Our studies provide fur ther evidence that consistent individual differences in key physiological attributes, like metabolic rate, might be a general mecha nism underlying consistent individual differences in behavior .     

Cloning and characterization of a FLORICAULA/LEAFY ortholog, PFL, in polygamous papaya

The homologous genes FLORICAULA （FLO） in Antirrhinum and LEAFY （LFY） in Arabidopsis are known to regulate the initiation of flowering in these two distantly related plant species. These genes are necessary also for the expression of downstream genes that control floral organ identity. We used Arabidopsis LFY cDNA as a probe to clone and sequence a papaya ortholog of LFY, PFL. It encodes a protein that shares 61% identity with the Arabidopsis LFY gene and 71% identity with the LFY homologs of the two woody tree species： California sycamore （Platanus racemosa） and black cottonwood （Populus trichocarpa）. Despite the high sequence similarity within two conserved regions, the N-terminal proline-rich motif in papaya PFL differs from other members in the family. This difference may not affect the gene function of papaya PFL, since an equally divergent but a functional LFY ortholog NEEDLY of Pinus radiata has been reported. Genomic and BAC Southern analyses indicated that there is only one copy of PFL in the papaya genome. In situ hybridization experiments demonstrated that PFL is expressed at a relatively low level in leaf primordia, but it is expressed at a high level in the floral meristem. Quantitative PCR analyses revealed that PFL was expressed in flower buds of all three sex types - male, female, and hermaphrodite with marginal difference between hermaphrodite and unisexual flowers. These data suggest that PFL may play a similar role as LFY in flower development and has limited effect on sex differentiation in papaya.     

Evaluating germinability of eight desert halophytes under long-term seed storage: Implications for conservation

Ex situ conservation in seed banks is a potential complementary conservation strategy for native plant species.It is well established that ex situ seed banking of native wild plants prolongs seed viability and thereby preserves genetic and species diversity for future use.We evaluated ex situ storage potential of eight halophytic species from deserts in the United Arab Emirates(UAE)by studying seed germination.Specifically,we examined the germinability of freshly collected seeds and seeds stored for three years in a seed bank.We also examined the effect of light conditions on fresh and stored seed germination.Fresh seeds of seven of the eight species tested had a higher germination rates under 12/12 h light/dark fluctuations than did those exposed to total darkness.Storage reduced light sensitivity in Halocnemum strobilaceum,Suaeda aegyptiaca,Salsola drummondii and Salsola imbricata,but increased the requirement for light in Arthrocnemum macrostachyum.In Anabasis setifera,storage decreased germination percentage when there was a 12-hour light/dark fluctuation,but increased germination rate when exposed to the dark treatment.Storage significantly reduced germination in both the light/dark and dark treatments in Suaeda vermiculata and S.aegyptiaca.Germination speed also responded differently to storage;whereas Timson's index significantly increased in A.macrostachyum and H.strobilaceum,it significantly decreased for S.drummondii,S.aegyptiaca and S.vermiculata.Germination of these species at a range of temperatures requires further testing;additionally,we strongly suggest that these laboratory findings be complemented by field studies.     

Special Issue on ＂Metagenomics of Marine Environments＂

We are pleased to announce a special issue on ＂Metagenomics of Marine Environments＂ of the journal Genomics, Proteomics ＆ Bioinformatics （GPB）, aiming to provide a platform for high-quality papers focusing on the topic and we invite submissions for this special issue （to be published in August of 2015）.
With most microbes being difficult or impossible to culture, metagenomic approaches based on culture- independent genomic sequencing provide the first real insight of the magnitude and diversity of microbial life that remains largely uncharted. The first metagenomic study of surface water of the Sargasso Sea revealed roughly 1800 species of microbes found in these samples, with 150 new bacterial species and over 1.2 million new genes. The astounding number of genes found in these samples suggests that microbial life in the ocean is far more abundant and diverse than one would expect.     

Asymmetry in genitalia is in sync with lateralized mating behavior but not with the lateralization of other behaviors

Asymmetries in bilateral organisms attract a lot of curiosity given that they are conspicuous departures from the norm.They allow the investigation of the integration at different levels of biological organization.Here we study whether and how behavioral and asymmetrical anatomical traits coevolved and work together.We ask if asymmetry is determined locally for each trait or at a whole individual level in a species bearing conspicuous asymmetrical genitalia.Asymmetric genitalia evolved in many species;however,in most cases the direction of asymmetry is fixed.Therefore,it has been rarely determined if there is an association between the direction of asymmetry in genitalia and other traits.In onesided livebearer fish of the genus Jenynsia(Cyprinodontiformes,Anablepidae),the anal fin of males is modified into a gonopodium,an intromittent organ that serves to inseminate females.The gonopodium shows a conspicuous asymmetry,with its tip bending either to the left or the right.By surveying 13 natural populations of Jenynsia lineata,we found that both genital morphs are equally common in wild populations.In a series of experiments in a laboratory population,we discovered asymmetry and lateralization for multiple other traits;yet,the degree of integration varied highly among them.Lateralization in exploratory behavior in response to different stimuli was not associated with genital morphology.Interestingly,the direction of genital asymmetry was positively correlated with sidedness of mating preference and the number of neuromasts in the lateral line.This suggests integration of functionally linked asymmetric traits;however,there is no evidence that asymmetry is determined at the whole individual level in our study species.     

Changes in Philornis infestation behavior threaten Darwin＇s finch survival

The conservation behavior framework is useful to identify key linkages between behavior and conservation practice. We apply this framework to a novel host-parasite system on the Galapagos Islands and ask if there have been changes in parasite oviposition behavior and host mortality patterns across the first decade （2004-2013） of its known association. The Dipteran parasite Philornis downsi was first discovered in Darwin＇s finch nests in 1997 and is the biggest threat to the survival of Galapagos land birds. Host mortality has increased over the past decade. In Dipterans, pupation and pupae size are determined by access to host resources. Here, we test the hypothesis that P downsi flies are laying eggs in finch nests earlier in the nestling phase to maximize larval feeding time and therefore chance of pupation success before host death. The results show fewer 1st instar larvae later in the host nesting cycle in support of earlier egg laying behavior by female flies. Between 2004 and 2013, parasite intensity increased from -28 to -48 parasites per nest, host mortality increased from -50% to -90%, and host age at death decreased from -11 to -5 days. The earlier age at host death was correlated with fewer pupae （from -50% to -20%） and smaller pupae size （-10% decrease）. Changes in parasite behavior reveal new fitness costs to both the parasite and Darwin＇s finches. These findings un- derscore the need for urgent conservation action to save Darwin＇s finches from extinction due to a novel, lethal and introduced parasite [Current Zoology 60 （4）： 542-550, 2014].     

The impact of kleptoparasitic invasions on the evolution of gall-size in social and solitary Australian Acacia thrips

Many species of gall-inducing Acacia thrips are attacked by kleptoparasitic thrips who enter the gall, destroy the occupants, and then use the gall for producing their own offspring. The hypothesis tested here is that pressure exerted by ldeptoparasites （genus Koptothrips） not only provoked the evolution of soldiers in the gall-inducing clade, but have also influenced the evolution of gall size and morphology. Various size dimensions of invaded galls were compared to those of uninvaded galls using data from six gall-inducing species and their kleptoparasites. For the non-social gall-inducing species （K. ellobus and K. nicholsoni） invaded galls showed no significant size differences from galls that had not been invaded. For the four social gall-inducingspecies （K. habrus, K. intermedius, K. waterhousei and K. morrisi） invaded galls were significantly narrower and/or shorter than uninvaded galls. Galls of social species that had not been invaded and contained adult soldiers were significantly larger than galls where soldiers were still at a larval stage, suggesting that gall size is related to gall age in these species. An hypothesis is proposed that links the timing of invasion by kleptoparasites to size of the host gall： induction of a smaller gall by host founders will reduce the period of vulnerability to invasion （before soldiers become adults） for social thrips by allowing foundresses in these smaller galls to begin laying soldierdestined eggs relatively sooner.     

Molecular markers of phase transition in locusts

The changes accompanying the transition from the gregarious to the solitary phase state in locusts are so drastic that for a long time these phases were considered as distinct species. It was Boris Uvarov who introduced the concept of polyphenism. Decades of research revealed that phase transition implies changes in morphometry, the color of the cuticle, behavior and several aspects of physiology. In particular, in the recent decade, quite a number of molecular studies have been undertaken to uncover phase-related differences. They resulted in novel insights into the role of corazonin, neuroparsins, some protease inhibitors, phenylacetonitrile and so on. The advent of EST-databases of locusts （e.g. Kang et al., 2004） is a most encouraging novel development in physiological and behavioral locust research. Yet, the answer to the most intriguing question, namely whether or not there is a primordial molecular inducer of phase transition, is probably not within reach in the very near future.     

Repeated Range Expansion and Glacial Endurance of Potentilla glabra （Rosaceae） in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

To date, little is still known about how alpine species occurring in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau （QTP） responded to past climatic oscillations. Here, by using variations of the chloroplast trnT-L, we examined the genetic distribution pattern of 101 individuals of Potentilla glabra, comprising both the interior QTP and the plateau edge. Phylogenetic and network analyses of 31 recovered haplotypes identified three tentative clades （A, B and C）. Analysis of molecular variance （AMOVA） revealed that most of the genetic variability was found within populations （0.693）, while differentiations between populations were obviously distinct （Fst -- 0.307）. Two independent range expansions within clades A and B occurring at approximately 316 and 201 thousand years ago （kya） were recovered from the hierarchical mismatch analysis, and these two expansions were also confirmed by Fu＇s Fs values and ＇g＇ tests. However, distant distributions of clade C and private haplotypes from clades A and B suggest that they had survived the Last Glacial Maximum （LGM） and previous glaciers in situ since their origins. Our findings based on available limited samples support that multiple refugia of a few cold-enduring species had been maintained in the QTP platform during LGM and/or previous glacial stages.     

Appetite control： why we fail to stop eating even when we are full？

We often eat more than our body needs. We live in an environment where high calorie food is abundant and physical activities are limited. Living in this environment, maintaining healthy bodyweight becomes challenging and obesity becomes a social burden. Why do we continue to eat even after the metabolic needs are satisfied？ Feeding is an ancient behavior essential to survive. Thus the mechanisms to regulate appetite, energy expenditure, and energy storage are well conserved throughout animals. Based on this conservation, we study why we fail to control appetite using a simple genetic model system C. elegans. We have discovered certain genetic components that when misregulated have animals eat more and store more fat. In this review we discuss how these genes work in the appetite control circuit to ultimately understand overall appetite control behavior. We will also briefly discuss how social influence affects feeding regardless of the metabolic status of an animal.