Technical note: calculation of age at formation of radiopaque transverse lines

A simple method for determining the age of an individual at the time of radiopaque transverse (Harris) line formation is presented. To use this method, only two measurements are required: total bone length and distance of line to nearest bone end; these are put into formulae that calculate the percent of total bone growth when the line appeared. The result of this calculation is compared with tables of percent bone growth per year (one to 16 years in females and one to 18 years in males) to arrive at estimations of age at line formation. Since these tables are presented for the femur, tibia, humerus, and radius, this technique can be used on any one of the major long bones exhibiting lines.     

Proportionality of the long bones and their relation to stature among Mesoamericans

A total of 235 (176 ♂ and 59 ♀) cadavers were measured. Of these blood samples of 132 (103 ♂ and 29 ♀) are drawn. Only those cadavers of which the long bones could be measured afterwards were used in the investigation, and of these only those whose blood was of group O and Rh +. A sample of 98 (69 ♂ and 29 ♀) was thus arrived at and divided morphoscopically into seven categories going from “pure” Indian to “pure” white. With electronic computers, means and standard deviations were calculated for all six unpaired long bones and for stature, as well as the coefficient of multiple correlation among the seven variables, for both males and females. As categories leading from “pure” white towards the other extreme were withdrawn, the sample size was reduced but the coefficient of multiple correlation increased from 0.71 to 0.90 in males, and from 0.74 to 0.94 in females, indicating that a more homogeneous population was being dealt with. Mean stature for this population was 161.50 cm and 149.80 cm for males and females, after 2.5 cm are deducted from cadaveral measurements. As the sample is morphoscopically and serologically as close as one could get to pre-hispanic conditions and as the statures arrived at are representative of what is known, tables were drawn giving the corresponding values of statures of males and females going from 180 cm to 130 cm at steps of 0.5 cm. It is submitted that until a larger sample is obtained, the newly drawn tables and formulae are more appropriate to calculate stature from long bones of American pre-hispanic populations than any other hitherto used.     

Aging changes in the medullary cavity of the proximal femur in American Blacks and Whites.

This study explores changes with age in the medullary cavity in an area of the femur which is becoming of increasing clinical interest. It is based on measurements of medial-lateral and posterior-anterior radiographs of the proximal one-third of the right femur, below the greater trochanter. The study population consisted of 257 individuals from the Terry collection in the Smithsonian Institution and included Blacks and Whites, males and females, aged 20 to 90 years. Medullary cavity and external diameters were measured at 11 levels, beginning with a line drawn perpendicular to the linea aspera at the level of the inferior border of the greater trochanter. To correct for size differences, the interval between levels was set at one-fourth the individual femoral head diameter. The data were subjected to regression analysis and analysis of variance. Anterior-posterior medullary diameter is more highly correlated with age than medial-lateral diameter. Females show the greatest relative increase with age in both dimensions, especially at subtrochanteric levels, and they tend to have relatively larger medullary cavities than males at all ages. White males have relatively larger medullary diameters than Black males. Younger White females have relatively larger medullary cavities than Black females, but the latter reach parity with White females in middle age and show a greater overall percentage of medullary expansion.     

Study on long bones: variation in angular traits with sex, age, and laterality

The biological problems considered in this study are sexual dimorphism in angular osteometric traits, changes in these traits with aging and their bilateral asymmetry in the same individual. The sample comprises the right and left long bones of 200 skeletons (100 males and 100 females) of Sardinian adults (Frasetto collection) for whom the sex and age at death are known. As concerns the sexual dimorphism, some angular traits of upper limb (joint axis angle of the ulna in particular) and the lower limb (condylo-diaphyseal angle of the femur and retroversion angle of the tibia) are significantly different between males and females. Torsion angles of long bones (especially the femur) were found to change with age. In sides comparison revealed a clear right-left asymmetry in our sample. The asymmetry, sexual dimorphism and changes with age are discussed in relation to varying stresses of different living activities. Our data indicate that the angular traits of long bones could be very informative in biomechanical interpretations of human activities based on skeletal remains.     

Femur/stature ratio and estimates of stature in mid- and late-Pleistocene fossil hominids

In previous limited investigations of the human femur/stature ratio we (Feldesman and Lundy: Journal of Human Evolution 17:583-596, 1988; Feldesman et al.: American Journal of Physical Anthropology 79:219-220, 1989) have shown it to be remarkably stable across ethnic and gender boundaries. In this study we evaluate the femur/stature ratio in 51 different "populations" of contemporary humans (n = 13,149) sampled from all over the world. We find that the mean ratio of femur length to stature in these populations is 26.74%, with a very restricted range of variation. When we compare mean femur/stature ratios of males and females, there are no statistically significant differences. ANOVA performed on a naive grouping of samples into "whites," "blacks," and "Asians" indicates that there are significant racial differences (P less than 0.001). When we subject these groups to Tukey's HSD procedure (a post-hoc test), we find that "blacks" are responsible for the significant ANOVA, being significantly (P less than 0.005) different from the other ethnic groups. "Whites" and "Asians" are not significantly different (P = 0.067) under the conditions of this analysis, although all these racial comparisons may be suspect given the small sample sizes. We tested the efficacy of the ratio in three situations: predicting stature of repatriated white Vietnam veterans; predicting stature in a random sample of South African blacks (of known stature), and predicting the stature of a single Akka pygmy. In the first and third cases, the femur/stature ratio does better than the traditionally recommended regression equation, while in the second case the predictions from the femur/stature ratio are less accurate than from the appropriate regression equation. These results encouraged us to apply this ratio to mid- and late-Pleistocene fossil hominids, where the choice of reference population for stature estimates continues to trouble workers. We estimated stature for a sizeable number of Homo erectus (HE), early Neanderthal (EN), Near Eastern Neanderthal (NEN), and early anatomically modern Homo sapiens (EAMHS) by using the simple relationship: stature (cm) = femur length (cm) * 100/26.74. Our results show that HE fossils are slightly taller on average than either EN or NEN samples, which do not differ significantly in stature, while EAMHS fossils are significantly taller than all three earlier groups. While these results are not surprising, our stature estimates for these fossils differ from currently published estimates based on sample-specific regression-based formulae.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Flying distance of frass kicked by the grasshopper Atractomorpha lata and factors affecting the flying distance

Adults of the grasshopper Atractomorpha lata use a hind leg kick to project their frass a considerable distance from themselves. To clarify the defecation behavior quantitatively and collect basic information that aids in clarification of the adaptive significance of this behavior, we measured the flying distance of kicked frass and examined the factors affecting the flying distance in adult A. lata. Males and females kicked their frass an average of 252 and 487 mm away, respectively. This represented more than ten times the body length or 100 times the length of the frass pellet for either sex. Only sex affected the flying distance of frass. There were sexual differences in hind‐femur length (females longer than males), volume of frass pellet (females larger than males) and ratio of diameter to length of frass pellet (RFP; larger in males than in females). The flying distance appears to be affected by the femur length, volume of frass pellet and RFP when data of both males and females were combined for analysis. However, none of these effects were observed when testing the effects within each sex. These results suggest that the sex difference in the flying distance does not result from the sex difference in femur length, volume of frass pellet or RFP. Because A. lata kicked their frass far away in both sexes, the frass‐kicking behavior might give benefit common to both males and females.     

从中指骨长度推算身高的研究

作者对近年在华南地区收集的,已知生前身高的汉族成年男性骨骼的中指骨近节、中节进行了测量。用直线回归方程、多元回归方程对从中指骨长度推算身高进行了研究。并用50例国人骨骼标本对这些推算身高的方法作了检验。结果表明,中指骨与四肢大型长骨,以及从中指骨长度推算身高的直线回归方程与多元回归方程,对推算身高的价值都是相同的。     

Morphological variation in adult chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) of the Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire

Twenty five adult chimpanzee skeletons (Pan troglodytes verus) of known age and sex (15 females, 10 males) from a long‐term study site in Taï National Park, Cote d'Ivoire present new data on variation. These skeletons provide a rare opportunity to measure the cranium and postcranium from the same individuals. We compare measurements and indices of the Taï sample with those of relatively complete Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii skeletons from Gombe National Park, Tanzania. Measurements of Pan paniscus are included as an outside comparison. The Taï and Gombe samples are analyzed by sex; combined sex samples are compared between the two groups, and the two sexes to each other. Taï females and males do not differ in most long bone lengths or in pelvic dimensions, but do differ significantly in cranial capacity, facial measurements, clavicle length, scapular breadth, and femur length. Gombe females and males differ significantly in some facial measurements and in scapular breadth. In combined sex samples, Taï individuals have lower cranial capacity, longer palate and mandible, and greater dimensions in the trunk and limb lengths. Taï females account for most of the variation; males differ from each other only in greater length of humerus and femur. The Taï skeletons provide new data for assessing individual variation and sexual dimorphism within and between populations and species. The combination of cranial and postcranial data provides a clearer picture of chimpanzee intraspecific and interspecific variation than can be gained from either data set alone. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2008. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Femur/stature ratio and estimates of stature in children.

The present study examines the relationship between femur length and stature in children between the ages of 8 and 18 years. In previous investigations, my colleagues and I reported the surprising finding that femur length bears a nearly constant relationship to stature in adult humans regardless of ethnicity or gender. This earlier study revealed that the femur/stature ratio averages 26.74% in adult humans, and that using the ratio to predict stature from femur length yields remarkably accurate estimates. The current study shows that femur/stature ratios of children between the ages of 8 and 11 differ significantly from their older counterparts. Between the ages of 12 and 18, there are no significant differences due to age in the femur/stature ratio; however, there are significant differences in this age group attributable to gender. This study also shows that the worldwide average adult femur/stature ratio does not adequately describe children in this age range. This study strongly documents the adolescent growth spurt in the femur/stature ratios of both males and females at the precise time one would expect to see the spurt occur (10-12 in females; 12-14 in males). This growth follows a nearly identical trajectory in both genders, with relative femur growth dominating before the peak years of the growth spurt, and relative stature growth dominating afterward. This accounts for the ratio's rise to maximum values just before peak growth, and its decline toward the adult ratio thereafter. These findings require us to use separate adolescent femur/stature ratios of 27.16 (females) and 27.44 (males) to estimate the stature of children between the ages of 12 and 18. Preliminary testing shows these ratios to be more accurate in estimating stature than the properly selected Trotter and Gleser adult regression equation. Use of the adolescent male ratio with the Homo erectus juvenile WT 15000 results in a lower stature estimate (157.4 cm) than previously reported. It is suggested that continued testing of the ratio occur, but that the values herein derived may be useful in routine forensic cases involving children in this age range, and with subadult paleontological specimens.     

天津蓟县桃花园明清家族墓地人骨的身高推算(Ⅰ)

通过对天津蓟县桃花园墓地2004年和2005年出土的171例成年人骨标本的身高推算,得出桃花园组男性居民的平均身高约为167.19cm,女性居民的平均身高约为152.89cm。男性居民的平均身高普遍高于古代北方居民,而低于现代北方居民。女性居民身高水平低于古代北方居民和我国现代北方居民。     

Methods for estimating missing human skeletal element osteometric dimensions employed in the revised fully technique for estimating stature

One of the greatest limitations to the application of the revised Fully anatomical stature estimation method is the inability to measure some of the skeletal elements required in its calculation. These element dimensions cannot be obtained due to taphonomic factors, incomplete excavation, or disease processes, and result in missing data. This study examines methods of imputing these missing dimensions using observable Fully measurements from the skeleton and the accuracy of incorporating these missing element estimations into anatomical stature reconstruction. These are further assessed against stature estimations obtained from mathematical regression formulae for the lower limb bones (femur and tibia). Two thousand seven hundred and seventeen North and South American indigenous skeletons were measured, and subsets of these with observable Fully dimensions were used to simulate missing elements and create estimation methods and equations. Comparisons were made directly between anatomically reconstructed statures and mathematically derived statures, as well as with anatomically derived statures with imputed missing dimensions. These analyses demonstrate that, while mathematical stature estimations are more accurate, anatomical statures incorporating missing dimensions are not appreciably less accurate and are more precise. The anatomical stature estimation method using imputed missing dimensions is supported. Missing element estimation, however, is limited to the vertebral column (only when lumbar vertebrae are present) and to talocalcaneal height (only when femora and tibiae are present). Crania, entire vertebral columns, and femoral or tibial lengths cannot be reliably estimated. Further discussion of the applicability of these methods is discussed.     

Fecundity of the autumnal moth depends on pooled geometrid abundance without a time lag: implications for cyclic population dynamics

1. The abundance and fecundity-related body size variation of the cyclic autumnal moth Epirrita autumnata were monitored from the early increase phase and throughout the outbreak to the end of the density decline in northernmost Norway during 1999-2006. Another geometrid, the winter moth Operophtera brumata, did not increase in density until the autumnal moth had its post-peak in 2004, and was at its own peak concurrent with the steeply declining autumnal moth abundance in 2005-06. 2. The body size variables measured (forewing lengths of males and females and hind femur lengths of males) of the autumnal moth showed a similar density-dependent response, i.e. increasing density was associated with decreasing body size and fecundity. Nevertheless, regression analyses clearly ranked the pooled geometrid abundance without a time lag as the best predictor for the body size variation, ahead of the abundance of the autumnal moth or past abundance of all geometrids. 3. Nondelayed effects of lowered food quality and absolute shortage of foliage under congested conditions are the most plausible reasons for reduced body size. 4. Two most commonly proposed causal factors of the autumnal moth population cycle, i.e. delayed inducible resistance of the host plant (mountain birch Betula pubescens czerepanovii) and delayed density-dependent parasitism by specialized hymenopteran parasitoids, cannot easily explain the diverging population trends between the autumnal and winter moths. 5. We suggest that either the inducible resistance of the host tree or the host utilization of the most important parasitoids and/or pathogens have to be strictly species-specific between these closely related moth species to produce the population dynamics observed. That fecundity of the autumnal moth was best related to the pooled geometrid abundance weakens support for the former hypothesis, while our lack of host-specific information limits conclusions about the role of natural enemies.     

Relative lengths of fingers and toes in human males and females

Digital scans of the hands and feet were obtained from 62 heterosexual females and 60 heterosexual males. Scans only of the hands were obtained from 29 homosexual females and 35 homosexual males. The lengths of the individual fingers and toes were estimated from those images by two experienced judges, and length ratios were constructed for all possible pairs of fingers (or toes) on each hand (or foot). Thumbs were not measured, but the great toe was measured and used to construct length ratios. Past research had concentrated on the relative lengths of the index and ring fingers (the 2D:4D ratio). This ratio is close to 1.0 in females and smaller than 1.0 in males. Here 2D:4D did exhibit the largest sex difference, for both hands, followed by 2D:5D and 3D:4D. The sex differences were larger for the right hand than for the left. For both homosexual females and homosexual males, nearly all of the length ratios for fingers were intermediate to those for heterosexual females and heterosexual males; that is, the ratios of homosexual females were masculinized and those of homosexual males were hypomasculinized, but few of these differences were significant. Because many toes were substantially arched, acceptable estimates of length often could not be obtained from the two-dimensional scans, meaning that conclusions about toes are much less certain than those for fingers. Nevertheless, the length ratios were generally larger for toes than for fingers, and the sex differences were generally smaller for toes.     

Morphological evidence for the biological role of caniniform teeth in combtooth blennies (Blenniidae, Teleostei)

Combtooth blennies have recurved, fang-like caniniform teeth at the rear end of a single row of incisiform teeth. The lengths and positions of these canines were measured in the lower jaws of males of 14 species of Mediterranean Blenniidae. In four species, lower jaw canines were measured in males and females, while in one species, the upper jaw canines of both sexes were also measured. Relative (to body length) canine length in males tends to be significantly greater (10–40%) than in females. There are significant interspecific differences in relative canine length, with smaller species tending to have relatively larger teeth. No significant correlation was obtained between canine length and importance of animal prey in the diet, nor with 'hole fit' of males, which may be related with the intensity of paternal care. We suggest that canines in combtooth blennies are predominately used for predator deterrence and agonistic interactions.     

Ecotypic differentiation between urban and rural populations of the grasshopper <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chorthippus brunneus</Emphasis> relative to climate and habitat fragmentation

Urbanization alters environmental conditions in multiple ways and offers an ecological or evolutionary challenge for organisms to cope with. Urban areas typically have a warmer climate and strongly fragmented herbaceous vegetation; the urban landscape matrix is often assumed to be hostile for many organisms. Here, we addressed the issue of evolutionary differentiation between urban and rural populations of an ectotherm insect, the grasshopper Chorthippus brunneus. We compared mobility-related morphology and climate-related life history traits measured on the first generation offspring of grasshoppers from urban and rural populations reared in a common garden laboratory experiment. We predicted (1) the urban phenotype to be more mobile (i.e., lower mass allocation to the abdomen, longer relative femur and wing lengths) than the rural phenotype; (2) the urban phenotype to be more warm adapted (e.g., higher female body mass); and (3) further evidence of local adaptation in the form of significant interaction effects between landscape of origin and breeding temperature. Both males and females of urban origin had significantly longer relative femur and wing lengths and lower mass allocation to the abdomen (i.e., higher investment in thorax and flight muscles) relative to individuals of rural origin. The results were overall significant but small (2–4%). Body mass and larval growth rate were much higher (+10%) in females of urban origin. For the life history traits, we did not find evidence for significant interaction effects between the landscape of origin and the two breeding temperatures. Our results point to ecotypic differentiation with urbanization for mobility-related morphology and climate-related life history traits. We argue that the warmer urban environment has an indirect effect through longer growth season rather than direct effects on the development.     

繁殖盛期雄性普通东方小蛙的个体大小不影响交配成功率

通过比较抱对和非抱对普通东方小蛙(Crinia signifera) 的吻尾干骨长(体长) 和检测个体较大或状态较好的雄体是否为成功繁殖个体, 检测雌蛙体长与交配成功的雄蛙的体长和相对状态(体重/体长) 之间是否存在线形关系, 评估交配与个体大小之间的关系。在实验室内, 令未交配雌体选择随机选出的雄体, 观测雌体是否与最大的雄体交配; 将抱对的蛙暴露于其它雄蛙, 观测其它较大或较小的雄蛙是否取代已抱对的雄蛙。结果表明: 抱对雄蛙和雌蛙的个体大小无显著的关系, 成功交配的雄蛙并不比未交配的雄蛙大, 其它雄蛙不能取代已抱对的雄蛙。在这一C. signifera种群中, 繁殖盛期雄性个体的大小似乎不影响交配成功率, 在此期间即便存在配偶选择, 亦决定于与雄性个体大小无关的其它因素。在更长的繁殖期内, 雄性个体大小则与交配成功率有关, 这是该种的典型特征。     

Sexual dimorphism in human lower limb bone structure: relationship to subsistence strategy and sexual division of labor

Cross-sectional geometric properties of the human femur and tibia are compared in males and females in a number of recent and archaeological population samples extending back to the Middle Paleolithic. There is a consistent decline in sexual dimorphism from hunting-gathering to agricultural to industrial subsistence strategy levels in properties which measure relative anteroposterior bending strength of the femur and tibia in the region about the knee. This trend parallels and is indicative of reductions in the sexual division of labor, in particular differences in the relative mobility of males and females. Sexual dimorphism in mediolateral bending strength near the hip shows no consistent temporal trend, probably reflecting relatively constant sex differences in pelvic structure related to the requirements of childbirth. Upper and Middle Paleolithic samples are indistinguishable in terms of sexual dimorphism from modern huntergatherers, suggesting a similar sexual division of labor. The results illustrate the utility of cross-sectional geometric parameters of long bone diaphyses in reconstructing behavioral differences within and between past populations. Some variations in the accuracy of sexing techniques based on diaphyseal measurements of the lower limb long bones may also be explained by these behavioral and structural factors.     

Estimating the length of incomplete long bones: forensic standards from Guatemala

We report on new standards for estimating long bone length from incomplete bones for use in forensic and archaeological contexts in Central America. The measurements we use closely follow those defined by Steele ([1970] Personal Identification in Mass Disasters; Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution), but we add several new landmarks. We measured the femur, humerus, tibia, and fibula of 100 Maya skeletons (68 males, 32 females) recovered from forensic exhumations. We derived the equations by regressing bone segment length on bone length, and solved for bone length to maximize the utility of the equations for taller populations. We generated equations for all segments that were significantly correlated with bone length for males, for females, and for both sexes combined, but accepted only regressions with r(2) > 0.85 as reliable. Landmarks defined by muscle attachment sites were more variable in location than landmarks on articular architecture; thus we retained few equations that use these landmarks. We tested the male and combined sex equations on 36 males of unknown ethnicity exhumed from a military base in Guatemala, and found that the equations performed satisfactorily. We also evaluated the performance of equations by Steele ([1970] Personal Identification in Mass Disasters; Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution) and Jacobs ([1992] Am J Phys Anthropol 89:333-345) on the Maya bones, and conclude that significant population variation in long bone proportions hinders their application in Central America.     

Winter day lengths counteract stimulatory effects of apomorphine and yohimbine on sexual behavior of male Syrian hamsters

Yohimbine and apomorphine selectively act on noradrenergic and dopaminergic neural substrates to augment male sexual behavior (MSB) in several rodent species. The present study assessed whether these drugs can overcome the suppressive effects of short winter-like day lengths on MSB. Yohimbine treatments that markedly increase copulatory behavior of male hamsters in long days were completely ineffective in facilitating MSB when injected after gonadal regression induced by 16 wks of short day lengths and after complete gonadal recrudescence after 32 wks of short days; apomorphine was similarly ineffective. The brain circuit that mediates MSB either may be less responsive to yohimbine and apomorphine in short than long days, or these drugs may not produce equivalent neurotransmitter changes in the two day lengths. After 32 wks of short-day treatment, all males had undergone testicular recrudescence and successfully ejaculated on initial tests with sexually receptive females after a hiatus of at least 4 mo during which they were denied mating opportunities. This suggests that overwintering males in the field are in a state of reproductive readiness at the outset of spring conditions favorable for survival of offspring.     

T. Aidan Cockburn, 1912--1981: a memorial

This study explores age-related thinning of cortical bone in an area of the femur that is becoming of increasing clinical interest. It is based on measurements of medial-lateral and posterior-anterior radiographs of the proximal one-third of the right femur, below the greater trochanter. The study population consisted of 458 skeletons from the Terry collection and included approximately equal numbers of blacks and whites, males and females, aged 20 to 98 years. Cortical thicknesses were measured at 11 levels, beginning with a line drawn perpendicular to the linea aspera at the level of the inferior border of the greater trochanter. The four quadrants (medial, lateral, anterior, posterior) differed in amount of change with age. In general, except for the relatively thick medial cortex, intertrochanteric levels showed less change than subtrochanteric levels. It is postulated that this is because the greatest remodeling activity takes place in trabecular rather than cortical bone in the intertrochanteric region. The anterior and posterior cortex showed the most regular and greatest amount of thinning with age. In males at lower levels, there was little or no loss in either medial or lateral cortex, but females showed considerable loss after the sixth decade. It is suggested that a stress-related “maintenance” factor retards cortical thinning in these quadrants. A review of the literature suggests that age-related cortical loss in the femur may have been accelerated in archaeological population, compared with modern groups.